Canberra Sofa Store

Sale of goods and services

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For the comic strip by Norm Feuti, see Retail (comic strip).

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Retail is the sale of goods and services to consumers, in contrast to wholesaling, which is the sale to business or institutional customers. A retailer purchases goods in large quantities from manufacturers, directly or through a wholesaler, and then sells in smaller quantities to consumers for a profit. Retailers are the final link in the supply chain from producers to consumers.

Retail markets and shops have a long history, dating back to antiquity. Some of the earliest retailers were itinerant peddlers. Over the centuries, retail shops were transformed from little more than "rude booths" to the sophisticated shopping malls of the modern era. In the digital age, an increasing number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling through multiple channels, including both bricks and mortar and online retailing. Digital technologies are also affecting the way that consumers pay for goods and services. Retailing support services may also include the provision of credit, delivery services, advisory services, stylist services and a range of other supporting services. Retail workers are the employees of such stores.

Most modern retailers typically make a variety of strategic level decisions including the type of store, the market to be served, the optimal product assortment, customer service, supporting services, and the store's overall market positioning. Once the strategic retail plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel, and presentation.

Etymology

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The word retail comes from the Old French verb retaillier, meaning "to shape by cutting" (c. 1365). It was first recorded as a noun in 1433 with the meaning of "a sale in small quantities" from the Middle French verb retailler meaning "a piece cut off, shred, scrap, paring".^[1] At present, the meaning of the word retail (in English, French, Dutch, German and Spanish) refers to the sale of small quantities of items to consumers (as opposed to wholesale).

Legal definition and explanation

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Retail refers to the activity of selling goods or services directly to consumers or end-users.^[2] Some retailers may sell to business customers, and such sales are termed non-retail activity. In some jurisdictions or regions, legal definitions of retail specify that at least 80 percent of sales activity must be to end-users.^[3] In the banking industry "wholesale" usually refers to wholesale banking, providing tailored services to large customers, in contrast with retail banking, providing standardized services to large numbers of smaller customers.

Retailing often occurs in retail stores or service establishments, but may also occur through direct selling such as through vending machines, door-to-door sales or electronic channels.^[4] Although the idea of retail is often associated with the purchase of goods, the term may be applied to service providers that sell to consumers. Retail service providers include retail banking, tourism, insurance, private healthcare, private education, private security firms, legal firms, publishers, public transport, and others. For example, a tourism provider might have a retail division that books travel and accommodation for consumers plus a wholesale division that purchases blocks of accommodation, hospitality, transport, and sightseeing which are subsequently packaged into a holiday tour for sale to retail travel agents.

Some retailers badge their stores as "wholesale outlets" offering "wholesale prices". While this practice may encourage consumers to imagine that they have access to lower prices, while being prepared to trade-off reduced prices for cramped in-store environments, in a strictly legal sense, a store that sells the majority of its merchandise directly to consumers, is defined as a retailer rather than a wholesaler. Different jurisdictions set parameters for the ratio of consumer to business sales that define a retail business.

Retail procurement

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Obtaining goods in the required quantities and locating them where consumers will purchase them are core retail activities, so purchasing and supply management are essential features of a retail strategy.^[5]

The distinction between "strategic" and "managerial" decision-making is commonly used to distinguish "two phases having different goals and based on different conceptual tools. Strategic planning concerns the choice of policies aiming at improving the competitive position of the firm, taking account of challenges and opportunities proposed by the competitive environment. On the other hand, managerial decision-making is focused on the implementation of specific targets."^[6]

In retailing, the strategic plan is designed to set out the vision and provide guidance for retail decision-makers and provide an outline of how the product and service mix will optimize customer satisfaction. As part of the strategic planning process, it is customary for strategic planners to carry out a detailed environmental scan which seeks to identify trends and opportunities in the competitive environment, market environment, economic environment and statutory-political environment. The retail strategy is normally devised or reviewed every three to five years by the chief executive officer. The profit margins of retailers depend largely on their ability to achieve market competitive transaction costs.

The strategic retail analysis typically includes following elements:^[7]

• Market analysis – Market size, stage of market, market competitiveness, market attractiveness, market trends
• Customer analysis – Market segmentation, demographic, geographic, and psychographic profile, values and attitudes, shopping habits, brand preferences, analysis of needs and wants, and media habits
• Internal analysis – Other capacities including human resource capability, technological capability, financial capability, ability to generate scale economies or economies of scope, trade relations, reputation, positioning, and past performance
• Competition analysis – Availability of substitutes, competitor's strengths and weaknesses, perceptual mapping, competitive trends
• Review of product mix – :: Sales per square foot, stock-turnover rates, profitability per product line
• Review of distribution channels – Lead-times between placing order and delivery, cost of distribution, cost efficiency of intermediaries
• Evaluation of the economics of the strategy – Cost-benefit analysis of planned activities

At the conclusion of the retail analysis, retail marketers should have a clear idea of which groups of customers are to be the target of marketing activities. Not all elements are, however, equal, often with demographics, shopping motivations, and spending directing consumer activities.^[8] Retail research studies suggest that there is a strong relationship between a store's positioning and the socio-economic status of customers.^[9] In addition, the retail strategy, including service quality, has a significant and positive association with customer loyalty.^[10] A marketing strategy effectively outlines all key aspects of firms' targeted audience, demographics, preferences. In a highly competitive market, the retail strategy sets up long-term sustainability. It focuses on customer relationships, stressing the importance of added value, customer satisfaction and highlights how the store's market positioning appeals to targeted groups of customers.^[11]

A retail mix is devised for the purpose of coordinating day-to-day tactical decisions. The retail marketing mix typically consists of six broad decision layers including product decisions, place decisions, promotion, price, personnel and presentation (also known as physical evidence). The retail mix is loosely based on the marketing mix, but has been expanded and modified in line with the unique needs of the retail context. A number of scholars have argued for an expanded marketing, mix with the inclusion of two new Ps, namely, Personnel and Presentation since these contribute to the customer's unique retail experience and are the principal basis for retail differentiation. Yet other scholars argue that the Retail Format (i.e. retail formula) should be included.^[12] The modified retail marketing mix that is most commonly cited in textbooks is often called the 6 Ps of retailing (see diagram at right).^[13][14]

The primary product-related decisions facing the retailer are the product assortment (what product lines, how many lines and which brands to carry); the type of customer service (high contact through to self-service) and the availability of support services (e.g. credit terms, delivery services, after sales care). These decisions depend on careful analysis of the market, demand, competition as well as the retailer's skills and expertise.

Customer service is the "sum of acts and elements that allow consumers to receive what they need or desire from [the] retail establishment." Retailers must decide whether to provide a full service outlet or minimal service outlet, such as no-service in the case of vending machines; self-service with only basic sales assistance or a full service operation as in many boutiques and speciality stores. In addition, the retailer needs to make decisions about sales support such as customer delivery and after sales customer care.

Place decisions are primarily concerned with consumer access and may involve location, space utilisation and operating hours. Retailers may consider a range of both qualitative and quantitative factors to evaluate to potential sites under consideration. Macro factors include market characteristics (demographic, economic and socio-cultural), demand, competition and infrastructure (e.g. the availability of power, roads, public transport systems). Micro factors include the size of the site (e.g. availability of parking), access for delivery vehicles. A major retail trend has been the shift to multi-channel retailing. To counter the disruption caused by online retail, many bricks and mortar retailers have entered the online retail space, by setting up online catalogue sales and e-commerce websites. However, many retailers have noticed that consumers behave differently when shopping online. For instance, in terms of choice of online platform, shoppers tend to choose the online site of their preferred retailer initially, but as they gain more experience in online shopping, they become less loyal and more likely to switch to other retail sites.^[15] Online stores are usually available 24 hours a day, and many consumers across the globe have Internet access both at work and at home.

The broad pricing strategy is normally established in the company's overall strategic plan. In the case of chain stores, the pricing strategy would be set by head office. Broadly, there are six approaches to pricing strategy mentioned in the marketing literature: operations-oriented,^[16] revenue-oriented,^[16] customer-oriented,^[16] value-based,^[17][18] relationship-oriented,^[19] and socially-oriented.^[20] When decision-makers have determined the broad approach to pricing (i.e., the pricing strategy), they turn their attention to pricing tactics. Tactical pricing decisions are shorter term prices, designed to accomplish specific short-term goals. Pricing tactics that are commonly used in retail include discount pricing,^[21] everyday low prices,^[22] high-low pricing,^[22][23] loss leaders, product bundling,^[24] promotional pricing, and psychological pricing.^[25] Two strategies to entice the buyer, money back guarantee and buy one get one free, were devised by 18th-century retail entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood.^[26][27] Retailers must also plan for customer preferred payment modes – e.g. cash, credit, lay-by, Electronic Funds Transfer at Point-of-Sale (EFTPOS). All payment options require some type of handling and attract costs.^[28] Contrary to common misconception, price is not the most important factor for consumers, when deciding to buy a product.^[29]

Because patronage at a retail outlet varies, flexibility in scheduling is desirable. Employee scheduling software is sold, which, using known patterns of customer patronage, more or less reliably predicts the need for staffing for various functions at times of the year, day of the month or week, and time of day. Usually needs vary widely. Conforming staff utilization to staffing needs requires a flexible workforce which is available when needed but does not have to be paid when they are not, part-time workers; as of 2012 70% of retail workers in the United States were part-time. This may result in financial problems for the workers, who while they are required to be available at all times if their work hours are to be maximized, may not have sufficient income to meet their family and other obligations.^[30] Retailers can employ different techniques to enhance sales volume and to improve the customer experience, such as Add-on, Upsell or Cross-sell; Selling on value;^[31] and knowing when to close the sale.^[32]

Transactional marketing aims to find target consumers, then negotiate, trade, and finally end relationships to complete the transaction. In this one-time transaction process, both parties aim to maximize their own interests. As a result, transactional marketing raises follow-up problems such as poor after-sales service quality and a lack of feedback channels for both parties. In addition, because retail enterprises needed to redevelop client relationships for each transaction, marketing costs were high and customer retention was low. All these downsides to transactional marketing gradually pushed the retail industry towards establishing long-term cooperative relationships with customers. Through this lens, enterprises began to focus on the process from transaction to relationship.^[33] While expanding the sales market and attracting new customers is very important for the retail industry, it is also important to establish and maintain long term good relationships with previous customers, hence the name of the underlying concept, "relational marketing". Under this concept, retail enterprises value and attempt to improve relationships with customers, as customer relationships are conducive to maintaining stability in the current competitive retail market, and are also the future of retail enterprises.

Presentation refers to the physical evidence that signals the retail image. Physical evidence may include a diverse range of elements – the store itself including premises, offices, exterior facade and interior layout, websites, delivery vans, warehouses, staff uniforms. The environment in which the retail service encounter occurs is sometimes known as the retail servicescape.^[34] The store environment consists of many elements such as aromas, the physical environment (furnishings, layout, and functionality), ambient conditions (lighting, air temperature, and music) as well as signs, symbols, and artifacts (e.g. sales promotions, shelf space, sample stations, visual communications). Retail designers pay close attention to the front of the store, which is known as the decompression zone. In order to maximize the number of selling opportunities, retailers generally want customers to spend more time in a retail store. However, this must be balanced against customer expectations surrounding convenience, access and realistic waiting times.^[35] The way that brands are displayed is also part of the overall retail design. Where a product is placed on the shelves has implications for purchase likelihood as a result of visibility and access.^[36] Ambient conditions, such as lighting, temperature and music, are also part of the overall retail environment.^[37] It is common for a retail store to play music that relates to their target market.^[38]

Two different strands of research have investigated shopper behaviour. One is primarily concerned with shopper motivations. The other stream of research seeks to segment shoppers according to common, shared characteristics. To some extent, these streams of research are inter-related, but each stream offers different types of insights into shopper behaviour.

Babin et al. carried out some of the earliest investigations into shopper motivations and identified two broad motives: utilitarian and hedonic. Utilitarian motivations are task-related and rational. For the shopper with utilitarian motives, purchasing is a work-related task that is to be accomplished in the most efficient and expedient manner. On the other hand, hedonic motives refer to pleasure. The shopper with hedonic motivations views shopping as a form of escapism where they are free to indulge fantasy and freedom. Hedonic shoppers are more involved in the shopping experience.^[39]

Many different shopper profiles can be identified. Retailers develop customised segmentation analyses for each unique outlet. However, it is possible to identify a number of broad shopper profiles. One of the most well-known and widely cited shopper typologies is that developed by Sproles and Kendal in the mid-1980s.^[40][41][42] Sproles and Kendall's consumer typology has been shown to be relatively consistent across time and across cultures.^[43][44] Their typology is based on the consumer's approach to making purchase decisions.^[45]

• Quality conscious/Perfectionist: Quality-consciousness is characterised by a consumer's search for the very best quality in products; quality conscious consumers tend to shop systematically making more comparisons and shopping around.
• Brand-conscious: Brand-consciousness is characterised by a tendency to buy expensive, well-known brands or designer labels. Those who score high on brand-consciousness tend to believe that the higher prices are an indicator of quality and exhibit a preference for department stores or top-tier retail outlets.
• Recreation-conscious/Hedonistic: Recreational shopping is characterised by the consumer's engagement in the purchase process. Those who score high on recreation-consciousness regard shopping itself as a form of enjoyment.
• Price-conscious: A consumer who exhibits price-and-value consciousness. Price-conscious shoppers carefully shop around seeking lower prices, sales or discounts and are motivated by obtaining the best value for money.
• Novelty/fashion-conscious: characterised by a consumer's tendency to seek out new products or new experiences for the sake of excitement; who gain excitement from seeking new things; they like to keep up-to-date with fashions and trends, variety-seeking is associated with this dimension.
• Impulsive: Impulsive consumers are somewhat careless in making purchase decisions, buy on the spur of the moment and are not overly concerned with expenditure levels or obtaining value. Those who score high on impulsive dimensions tend not to be engaged with the object at either a cognitive or emotional level.
• Confused (by overchoice): characterised by a consumer's confusion caused by too many product choices, too many stores or an overload of product information; tend to experience information overload.
• Habitual/brand loyal: characterised by a consumer's tendency to follow a routine purchase pattern on each purchase occasion; consumers have favourite brands or stores and have formed habits in choosing; the purchase decision does not involve much evaluation or shopping around.

Some researchers have adapted Sproles and Kendall's methodology for use in specific countries or cultural groups.^[46] Consumer decision styles are important for retailers and marketers because they describe behaviours that are relatively stable over time and for this reason, they are useful for market segmentation.

Retail formats (also known as retail formulas) influence the consumer's store choice and addresses the consumer's expectations. At its most basic level, a retail format is a simple marketplace, that is; a location where goods and services are exchanged. In some parts of the world, the retail sector is still dominated by small family-run stores, but large retail chains are increasingly dominating the sector, because they can exert considerable buying power and pass on the savings in the form of lower prices. Many of these large retail chains also produce their own private labels which compete alongside manufacturer brands. Considerable consolidation of retail stores has changed the retail landscape, transferring power away from wholesalers and into the hands of the large retail chains.^[47] In Britain and Europe, the retail sale of goods is designated as a service activity. The European Service Directive applies to all retail trade including periodic markets, street traders and peddlers.

Retail stores may be classified by the type of product carried. Softline retailers sell goods that are consumed after a single-use, or have a limited life (typically under three years) in they are normally consumed. Soft goods include clothing, other fabrics, footwear, toiletries, cosmetics, medicines and stationery.^[48][49] Grocery stores, including supermarkets and hypermarkets, along with convenience stores carry a mix of food products and consumable household items such as detergents, cleansers, personal hygiene products. Retailers selling consumer durables are sometimes known as hardline retailers^[50] – automobiles, appliances, electronics, furniture, sporting goods, lumber, etc., and parts for them. Specialist retailers operate in many industries such as the arts e.g. green grocers, contemporary art galleries, bookstores, handicrafts, musical instruments, gift shops.

When discussing the impact of technology on shopping and retail, e-commerce is often the first thing that comes to mind for retailers. However, technologies such as big data, artificial intelligence, computer vision and the Internet of Things have used data to transform every part of the shopping experience, from browsing to checkout.^[51]

It is important for organizations to embrace digital disruption in order to gain a competitive advantage. When an industry experiences digital disruption, it typically signals that consumer needs are shifting. Retailers enhance their analytics process and make better informed decisions thanks to big data, artificial intelligence, computer vision, and the Internet of Things. The use of data by retailers is mostly evident in the following aspects, based on the above-mentioned new technologies:^[52][53]

• Enhance marketing by Personalizing customer experience
• Optimize supply chain management
• Adjust prices to maximize profits

Many leading brands actively target tourists who travel specifically to shop or allocate a significant portion of their spending to retail while on vacation. According to the Global Retail Tourism Market Report 2019–2023, the global shopping tourism market was valued at approximately $1.2 trillion in 2018. The report projected steady growth, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.7% between 2019 and 2023. Building on this trend, Kogan Page published the book Leading Travel and Tourism Retail in 2023, offering an in-depth analysis of the travel retail sector and its evolution in the post-COVID era.

Retail markets have existed since ancient times. Archaeological evidence for trade, probably involving barter systems, dates back more than 10,000 years. As civilizations grew, barter was replaced with retail trade involving coinage. Selling and buying are thought to have emerged in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) in around the 7th-millennium BCE.^[54] In ancient Greece, markets operated within the agora, an open space where, on market days, goods were displayed on mats or temporary stalls.^[55] In ancient Rome, trade took place in the forum.^[56] The Roman forum was arguably the earliest example of a permanent retail shop-front.^[57]

Research from July 2008 suggests that China exhibited a rich history of early retail systems.^[58] From as early as 200 BCE, Chinese packaging and branding were used to signal family, place names and product quality, and the use of government imposed product branding was used between 600 and 900 CE.^[59] Eckhart and Bengtsson have argued that during the Song dynasty (960–1127), Chinese society developed a consumerist culture, where a high level of consumption was attainable for a wide variety of ordinary consumers rather than just the elite.^[60]

In Medieval England and Europe, relatively few permanent shops were to be found; instead, customers walked into the tradesman's workshops where they discussed purchasing options directly with tradesmen.^[61] In the more populous cities, a small number of shops were beginning to emerge by the 13th century.^[62] Outside the major cities, most consumable purchases were made through markets or fairs.^[63] Market-places appear to have emerged independently outside Europe. The Grand Bazaar in Istanbul is often cited as the world's oldest continuously operating market; its construction began in 1455. The Spanish conquistadors wrote glowingly of markets in the Americas. In the 15th century, the Mexica (Aztec) market of Tlatelolco was the largest in all the Americas.^[64]

By the 17th century, permanent shops with more regular trading hours were beginning to supplant markets and fairs as the main retail outlet. Provincial shopkeepers were active in almost every English market town.^[65] As the number of shops grew, they underwent a transformation. The trappings of a modern shop, which had been entirely absent from the 16th- and early 17th-century store, gradually made way for store interiors and shopfronts that are more familiar to modern shoppers. Prior to the 18th century, the typical retail store had no counter, display cases, chairs, mirrors, changing rooms, etc. However, the opportunity for the customer to browse merchandise, touch and feel products began to be available, with retail innovations from the late 17th and early 18th centuries.^[66]

By the late 18th century, grand shopping arcades began to emerge across Europe and in the Antipodes. A shopping arcade refers to a multiple-vendor space, operating under a covered roof. Typically, the roof was constructed of glass to allow for natural light and to reduce the need for candles or electric lighting. Some of the earliest examples of shopping arcade appeared in Paris, due to its lack of pavement for pedestrians.^[67] While the arcades were the province of the bourgeoisie, a new type of retail venture emerged to serve the needs of the working poor. John Stuart Mill wrote about the rise of the co-operative retail store, which he witnessed first-hand in the mid-19th century.^[68]

The modern era of retailing is defined as the period from the industrial revolution to the 21st century.^[69] In major cities, the department store emerged in the mid- to late 19th century, and permanently reshaped shopping habits, and redefined concepts of service and luxury.^[70] Many of the early department stores were more than just a retail emporium; rather they were venues where shoppers could spend their leisure time and be entertained.^[71] Retail, using mail order, came of age during the mid-19th century. Although catalogue sales had been used since the 15th century, this method of retailing was confined to a few industries such as the sale of books and seeds. However, improvements in transport and postal services led several entrepreneurs on either side of the Atlantic to experiment with catalogue sales.^[72]

In the post-war period, an American architect, Victor Gruen developed a concept for a shopping mall; a planned, self-contained shopping complex complete with an indoor plaza, statues, planting schemes, piped music, and car-parking. Gruen's vision was to create a shopping atmosphere where people felt so comfortable, they would spend more time in the environment, thereby enhancing opportunities for purchasing. The first of these malls opened at Northland Mall near Detroit in 1954.^[73] Throughout the twentieth century, a trend towards larger store footprints became discernible. The average size of a U.S. supermarket grew from 31,000 square feet (2,900 m²) square feet in 1991 to 44,000 square feet (4,100 m²) square feet in 2000.^[74] By the end of the twentieth century, stores were using labels such as "mega-stores" and "warehouse" stores to reflect their growing size.^[75] The upward trend of increasing retail space was not consistent across nations and led in the early 21st century to a 2-fold difference in square footage per capita between the United States and Europe.^[76]

As the 21st century takes shape, some indications suggest that large retail stores have come under increasing pressure from online sales models and that reductions in store size are evident.^[77] Under such competition and other issues such as business debt,^[78] there has been a noted business disruption called the retail apocalypse in recent years which several retail businesses, especially in North America, are sharply reducing their number of stores, or going out of business entirely.

Among retailers and retails chains a lot of consolidation has appeared over the last couple of decades. Between 1988 and 2010, worldwide 40,788 mergers and acquisitions with a total known value of US$2.255 trillion have been announced.^[79] The largest transactions with involvement of retailers in/from the United States have been: the acquisition of Albertson's Inc. for US$17 billion in 2006,^[80] the merger between Federated Department Stores Inc with May Department Stores valued at 16.5 bil. USD in 2005^[81] – now Macy's, and the merger between Kmart Holding Corp and Sears Roebuck & Co with a value of US$10.9 billion in 2004.^[82]

Between 1985 and 2018 there have been 46,755 mergers or acquisitions conducted globally in the retail sector (either acquirer or target from the retail industry). These deals cumulate to an overall known value of around US$2,561 billion. The three major Retail M&A waves took place in 2000, 2007 and lately in 2017. However the all-time high in terms of number of deals was in 2016 with more than 2,700 deals. In terms of added value 2007 set the record with the US$225 billion.^[83]

Here is a list of the top ten largest deals (ranked by volume) in the Retail Industry:^{[citation needed]}

As of 2016, China was the largest retail market in the world.^[84]

Worldwide top ten retailers[85]
Rank	Company	Headquarters	2020 total revenue (US$ billion)[85]	Business foundation	Number of countries of operation 2020
1	Walmart	United States	$519.93	Hypermarket/supercenter/superstore	27
2	Amazon	United States	$280.52	Ecommerce	18
3	Costco	United States	$163.22	Cash & carry/warehouse club	12
4	Schwarz Gruppe (Lidl)	Germany	$133.89	Discount grocery store	33
5	Aldi	Germany	$116.06	Discount grocery store	18
6	JD.com	China	$82.86	Ecommerce	–
7	Carrefour	France	$82.60	Hypermarket/supermarket	32
8	Ahold Delhaize	Netherlands	$78.17	Grocery store	10
9	Alibaba	China	$71.99	Ecommerce	7
10	IKEA	Sweden	$45.18	Furniture	60

The National Retail Federation and Kantar annually rank the nation's top retailers according to sales.^[86] The National Retail Federation also separately ranks the 100 fastest-growing U.S. retailers based on increases in domestic sales.^[87][86]

Since 1951, the U.S. Census Bureau has published the Retail Sales report every month. It is a measure of consumer spending, an important indicator of the US GDP. Retail firms provide data on the dollar value of their retail sales and inventories. A sample of 12,000 firms is included in the final survey and 5,000 in the advanced one. The advanced estimated data is based on a subsample from the US CB complete retail and food services sample.^[88]

Retail is the largest private-sector employer in the United States, supporting 52 million working Americans.^[89]

In 2011, the grocery market in six countries of Central Europe was worth nearly €107bn, 2.8% more than the previous year when expressed in local currencies. The increase was generated foremost by the discount stores and supermarket segments, and was driven by the skyrocketing prices of foodstuffs. This information is based on the latest PMR report entitled Grocery retail in Central Europe 2012^[90]

National accounts show a combined total of retail and wholesale trade, with hotels and restaurants. in 2012 the sector provides over a fifth of GDP in tourist-oriented island economies, as well as in other major countries such as Brazil, Pakistan, Russia, and Spain. In all four of the latter countries, this fraction is an increase over 1970, but there are other countries where the sector has declined since 1970, sometimes in absolute terms, where other sectors have replaced its role in the economy. In the United States the sector has declined from 19% of GDP to 14%, though it has risen in absolute terms from $4,500 to $7,400 per capita per year. In China the sector has grown from 7.3% to 11.5%, and in India even more, from 8.4% to 18.7%. Emarketer predicts China will have the largest retail market in the world in 2016.^[91]

In 2016, China became the largest retail market in the world.^[84]

In the Republic of Armenia, retail trade has been increasing recently. In October 2022, it increased by 23.1% year by year, which was the most considerable rise since April 2021, faster than the 20.7 per cent increase recorded a month earlier. Retail dropped by 1.9% after accumulating 2.1%in the earlier month. For the first 10 months of 2022, retail sales increased by 15.5% by measuring the exact time of 2021. Among its bordering countries, on retail trade percentage of GDP, Armenia ranks more increased than Turkey, but it is still lower than Georgia.^[92]

To achieve and maintain a foothold in an existing market, a prospective retail establishment must overcome the following hurdles:

• regulatory barriers including:
  • restrictions on real-estate purchases, especially as imposed by local governments and against "big-box" chain retailers
  • restrictions on foreign investment in retailers, in terms of both absolute amount of financing provided and percentage share of voting stock (e.g. common stock) purchased
• unfavorable taxation structures, especially those designed to penalize or keep out "big box" retailers (see "Regulatory" above)
• absence of developed supply-chain and integrated IT management
• high competitiveness among existing market participants and resulting low profit margins, caused in part by:
  • constant advances in product design resulting in constant threat of product obsolescence and price declines for existing inventory
• partially due to loss in business: lack of work-force, often including management, that is properly educated and trained
  • lack of educational infrastructure enabling prospective market entrants to respond to the above challenges
• direct e-tailing (for example, through the Internet) and direct delivery to consumers from manufacturers and suppliers, cutting out any retail middle man.^[93]

• Adburgham, A., Shopping in Style: London from the Restoration to Edwardian Elegance, London, Thames and Hudson, 1979
• Alexander, A., "The Study of British Retail History: Progress and Agenda", in The Routledge Companion to Marketing History, D.G. Brian Jones and Mark Tadajewski (eds.), Oxon, Routledge, 2016, pp. 155–72
• Feinberg, R.A. and Meoli, J., [Online: "A A Brief History of the Mall Archived 4 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine Brief History of the Mall"], in Advances in Consumer Research, Volume 18, Rebecca H. Holman and Michael R. Solomon (eds.), Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1991, pp. 426–27
• Hollander, S. C., "Who and What are Important in Retailing and Marketing History: A Basis for Discussion", in S.C. Hollander and R. Savitt (eds.) First North American Workshop on Historical Research in Marketing, Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, 1983, pp. 35–40.
• Jones, F., "Retail Stores in the United States, 1800–1860", Journal of Marketing, October 1936, pp. 135–40
• Krafft, Manfred; Mantrala, Murali K., eds. (2006). Retailing in the 21st Century: Current and Future Trends. New York: Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-28399-7.
• Kowinski, W. S., The Malling of America: An Inside Look at the Great Consumer Paradise, New York, William Morrow, 1985
• Furnee, J. H., and Lesger, C. (eds), The Landscape of Consumption: Shopping Streets and Cultures in Western Europe, 1600–1900, Springer, 2014
• MacKeith, M., The History and Conservation of Shopping Arcades, Mansell Publishing, 1986
• Nystrom, P. H., "Retailing in Retrospect and Prospect", in H.G. Wales (ed.) Changing Perspectives in Marketing, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 19951, pp. 117–38.
• Stobard, J., Sugar and Spice: Grocers and Groceries in Provincial England, 1650–1830, Oxford University Press, 2016
• Underhill, Paco, Call of the Mall: The Author of Why We Buy on the Geography of Shopping, Simon & Schuster, 2004

Look up retailing or retail in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Marketing

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Retail.

• ECRoPEDIA – Free Global Collection of Retail/FMCG Best practices by ECR Community
• Investopedia.The Industry Handbook: The Retailing Industry
• National Retail Federation (U.S.-based trade association)

Objects used to support human activities

For other uses, see Furniture (disambiguation).

Short visual history of furniture styles (from left to right): cloisonné plaque (Assyrian), Chair of Reniseneb (Ancient Egyptian), metal brazier with satyrs from Pompei (Greco-Roman), fall-front cabinet inlaid with ivory (Indian), low-back armchair (Chinese), casket with images of Cupids (Byzantine), wood and ivory furniture fragment (Islamic), chest (Gothic), analogion (Romanian Medieval), sideboard with two bodies (Renaissance), gilded table (Baroque), commode (Rococo), armchair with cornucopia (Louis XVI), secretary (Empire), fauteuil a joues armchair (19th century Eclecticism and/or Revivalism), vitrine (Art Nouveau), commode (Art Deco), IKEA kitchen cupboards and a table with glass top (Contemporary)

Furniture refers to objects intended to support various human activities such as seating (e.g., stools, chairs, and sofas), eating (tables), storing items, working, and sleeping (e.g., beds and hammocks). Furniture is also used to hold objects at a convenient height for work (as horizontal surfaces above the ground, such as tables and desks), or to store things (e.g., cupboards, shelves, and drawers). Furniture can be a product of design and can be considered a form of decorative art. In addition to furniture's functional role, it can serve a symbolic or religious purpose. It can be made from a vast multitude of materials, including metal, plastic, and wood. Furniture can be made using a variety of woodworking joints which often reflects the local culture.

People have been using natural objects, such as tree stumps, rocks and moss, as furniture since the beginning of human civilization and continues today in some households/campsites. Archaeological research shows that from around 30,000 years ago, people started to construct and carve their own furniture, using wood, stone, and animal bones. Early furniture from this period is known from artwork such as a Venus figurine found in Russia, depicting the goddess on a throne. The first surviving extant furniture is in the homes of Skara Brae in Scotland, and includes cupboards, dressers and beds all constructed from stone. Complex construction techniques such as joinery began in the early dynastic period of ancient Egypt. This era saw constructed wooden pieces, including stools and tables, sometimes decorated with valuable metals or ivory. The evolution of furniture design continued in ancient Greece and ancient Rome, with thrones being commonplace as well as the klinai, multipurpose couches used for relaxing, eating, and sleeping. The furniture of the Middle Ages was usually heavy, oak, and ornamented. Furniture design expanded during the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth century. The seventeenth century, in both Southern and Northern Europe, was characterized by opulent, often gilded Baroque designs. The nineteenth century is usually defined by revival styles. The first three-quarters of the twentieth century are often seen as the march towards Modernism. One unique outgrowth of post-modern furniture design is a return to natural shapes and textures.^[1]

Etymology

[edit]

The English word furniture is derived from the French word fourniture,^[2] the noun form of fournir, which means to supply or provide.^[3] Thus fourniture in French means supplies or provisions.^[4] The English usage, referring specifically to household objects, is specific to that language;^[5] French and other Romance languages as well as German use variants of the word meubles, which derives from Latin mobilia, meaning "moveable goods".^[6]

History

[edit]

Prehistory

[edit]

The practice of using natural objects as rudimentary pieces of furniture likely dates to the beginning of human civilization.^[7] Early humans are likely to have used tree stumps as seats, rocks as rudimentary tables, and mossy areas for sleeping.^[7] During the late Paleolithic or early Neolithic period, from around 30,000 years ago, people began constructing and carving their own furniture, using wood, stone and animal bones.^[8] The earliest evidence for the existence of constructed furniture is a Venus figurine found at the Gagarino site in Russia, which depicts the goddess in a sitting position, on a throne.^[9] A similar statue of a seated woman was found in Çatalhöyük in Turkey, dating to between 6000 and 5500 BCE.^[7] The inclusion of such a seat in the figurines implies that these were already common artefacts of that age.^[9]

A range of unique stone furniture has been excavated in Skara Brae, a Neolithic village in Orkney, Scotland The site dates from 3100 to 2500 BCE and due to a shortage of wood in Orkney, the people of Skara Brae were forced to build with stone, a readily available material that could be worked easily and turned into items for use within the household. Each house shows a high degree of sophistication and was equipped with an extensive assortment of stone furniture, ranging from cupboards, dressers, and beds to shelves, stone seats, and limpet tanks. The stone dresser was regarded as the most important as it symbolically faces the entrance in each house and is therefore the first item seen when entering, perhaps displaying symbolic objects, including decorative artwork such as several Neolithic carved stone balls also found at the site.

• 
  The Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük, a figurine discovered in Turkey and dated to approximately 6000 BC, is evidence that furniture already existed by that point.
• 
  A dresser with shelves furnishes a house in Skara Brae, a settlement in what is now Scotland that was occupied from about 3180–2500 BC
• 
  Cucuteni ritualic figurines sitting on miniature chairs; 4900–4750 BC; painted ceramic; Archaeology Museum Piatra NeamÈ› (Piatra NeamÈ›, Romania)
• 
  Cucuteni figurine staying on a miniature chair; 4750–4700 BC; ceramic; discovered at TârpeÈ™ti (modern-day Romania); Archaeology Museum Piatra NeamÈ›

Antiquity

[edit]

Ancient furniture has been excavated from the 8th-century BCE Phrygian tumulus, the Midas Mound, in Gordion, Turkey. Pieces found here include tables and inlaid serving stands. There are also surviving works from the 9th–8th-century BCE Assyrian palace of Nimrud. The earliest surviving carpet, the Pazyryk Carpet was discovered in a frozen tomb in Siberia and has been dated between the 6th and 3rd century BCE.

Civilization in ancient Egypt began with the clearance and irrigation of land along the banks of the River Nile,^[10] which began in about 6000 BCE. By that time, society in the Nile Valley was already engaged in organized agriculture and the construction of large buildings.^[11] At this period, Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and also constructing large buildings. Mortar was in use by around 4000 BCE The inhabitants of the Nile Valley and delta were self-sufficient and were raising barley and emmer (an early variety of wheat) and stored it in pits lined with reed mats.^[12] They raised cattle, goats and pigs and they wove linens and baskets.^[12] Evidence of furniture from the predynastic period is scarce, but samples from First Dynasty tombs indicate an already advanced use of furnishings in the houses of the age.^[13]

During the Dynastic Period, which began in around 3200 BCE, Egyptian art developed significantly, and this included furniture design.^[14] Egyptian furniture was primarily constructed using wood, but other materials were sometimes used, such as leather,^[15] and pieces were often adorned with gold, silver, ivory and ebony, for decoration.^[15] Wood found in Egypt was not suitable for furniture construction, so it had to be imported into the country from other places,^[14] particularly Phoenicia.^[16] The scarcity of wood necessitated innovation in construction techniques. The use of scarf joints to join two shorter pieces together and form a longer beam was one example of this,^[17] as well as construction of veneers in which low quality cheap wood was used as the main building material, with a thin layer of expensive wood on the surface.^[18]

The earliest used seating furniture in the dynastic period was the stool, which was used throughout Egyptian society, from the royal family down to ordinary citizens.^[19] Various different designs were used, including stools with four vertical legs, and others with crossed splayed legs; almost all had rectangular seats, however.^[19] Examples include the workman's stool, a simple three legged structure with a concave seat, designed for comfort during labour,^[20] and the much more ornate folding stool, with crossed folding legs,^[21] which were decorated with carved duck heads and ivory,^[21] and had hinges made of bronze.^[19] Full chairs were much rarer in early Egypt, being limited to only wealthy and high ranking people, and seen as a status symbol; they did not reach ordinary households until the 18th dynasty.^[22] Early examples were formed by adding a straight back to a stool, while later chairs had an inclined back.^[22] Other furniture types in ancient Egypt include tables, which are heavily represented in art, but almost nonexistent as preserved items – perhaps because they were placed outside tombs rather than within,^[23] as well as beds and storage chests.^[24][25]

• 
  Stool with woven seat; 1991–1450 BC; wood & reed; height: 13 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  Jewelry chest of Sithathoryunet; 1887–1813 BC; ebony, ivory, gold, carnelian, blue faience and silver; height: 36.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  Chair of Hatnefer; 1492–1473 BC; boxwood, cypress, ebony & linen cord; height: 53 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  The Throne of Tutankhamun; 1336–1327 BC; wood covered with sheets of gold, silver, semi-precious and other stones, faience, glass and bronze; height: 1 m; Egyptian Museum (Cairo)

Historical knowledge of Greek furniture is derived from various sources, including literature, terracotta, sculptures, statuettes, and painted vases.^[26] Some pieces survive to this day, primarily those constructed from metals, including bronze, or marble.^[26] Wood was an important and common material in Greek furniture, both domestic and imported.^[26] A common technique was to construct the main sections of the furniture with cheap solid wood, then apply a veneer using an expensive wood, such as maple or ebony.^[26] Greek furniture construction also made use of dowels and tenons for joining the wooden parts of a piece together.^[26] Wood was shaped by carving, steam treatment, and the lathe, and furniture is known to have been decorated with ivory, tortoise shell, glass, gold or other precious materials.^[27]

The modern word "throne" is derived from the ancient Greek thronos (Greek singular: θρÏŒνος), which was a seat designated for deities or individuals of high status/hierarchy or honor.^[28] The colossal chryselephantine statue of Zeus at Olympia, constructed by Phidias and lost in antiquity, featured the god Zeus seated on an elaborate throne, which was decorated with gold, precious stones, ebony and ivory, according to Pausanias.^[29] Other Greek seats included the klismos, an elegant Greek chair with a curved backrest and legs whose form was copied by the Romans and is now part of the vocabulary of furniture design,^[30] the backless stool (diphros), which existed in most Greek homes,^[31] and folding stool.^[32] The kline, used from the late seventh century BCE,^[33] was a multipurpose piece used as a bed, but also as a sofa and for reclining during meals.^[34] It was rectangular and supported on four legs, two of which could be longer than the other, providing support for an armrest or headboard.^[35] Mattresses, rugs, and blankets may have been used, but there is no evidence for sheets.^[34]

In general, Greek tables were low and often appear in depictions alongside klinai.^[36] The most common type of Greek table had a rectangular top supported on three legs, although numerous configurations exist, including trapezoid and circular.^[37] Tables in ancient Greece were used mostly for dining purposes – in depictions of banquets, it appears as though each participant would have used a single table, rather than a collective use of a larger piece.^[38] Tables also figured prominently in religious contexts, as indicated in vase paintings, for example, the wine vessel associated with Dionysus, dating to around 450 BCE and now housed at the Art Institute of Chicago.^[39] Chests were used for storage of clothes and personal items and were usually rectangular with hinged lids.^[37] Chests depicted in terracotta show elaborate patterns and design, including the Greek fret.^[34]

• 
  Foot in the form of a sphinx; circa 600 BC; bronze; overall: 27.6 x 20.3 x 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
• 
  Rod tripod stand; early 6th century BC; bronze; overall: 75.2 x 44.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  Pelike which depicts a boy carrying furniture for a symposium (drinking party), in the Ashmolean Museum (Oxford, UK)
• 
  Funerary stele in which appears somebody staying on a klismos, from circa 410–400 BC, in the National Archaeological Museum (Athens, Greece)

Roman furniture was based heavily on Greek furniture, in style and construction. Rome gradually superseded Greece as the foremost culture of Europe, leading eventually to Greece becoming a province of Rome in 146 BC. Rome thus took over production and distribution of Greek furniture, and the boundary between the two is blurred. The Romans did have some limited innovation outside of Greek influence, and styles distinctly their own.^[40]

Roman furniture was constructed principally using wood, metal and stone, with marble and limestone used for outside furniture. Very little wooden furniture survives intact, but there is evidence that a variety of woods were used, including maple, citron, beech, oak, and holly. Some imported wood such as satinwood was used for decoration. The most commonly used metal was bronze, of which numerous examples have survived, for example, headrests for couches and metal stools. Similar to the Greeks, Romans used tenons, dowels, nails, and glue to join wooden pieces together, and also practised veneering.^[40]

The 1738 and 1748 excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii revealed Roman furniture, preserved in the ashes of the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius.

• 
  Illustration of Roman furniture details, from 1900, very similar with Empire style furniture
• 
  Tripod base; circa 100 BC; bronze; overall: 77 x 32.3 x 28 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, USA)
• 
  Treasure chest with a sacrifice of Jupiter depicted on it; 1st century AD; wood, iron and bronze, with ageminature; from Pompeii; Naples National Archaeological Museum (Naples, Italy)
• 
  Couch and footstool with bone carvings and glass inlays; 1st–2nd century AD; wood, bone and glass; couch: 105.4 × 76.2 × 214.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

Unlike the ancient western civilizations of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, there is comparatively little evidence of furniture from the 5th to the 15th century.^[41] Very few extant pieces survive, and evidence in literature is also scarce.^[41] It is likely that the style of furniture prevalent in late antiquity persisted throughout the Middle Ages.^[41] For example, a throne similar to that of Zeus is depicted in a sixth-century diptych,^[41] while the Bayeux tapestry shows Edward the Confessor and Harold seated on seats similar to the Roman sella curulis.^[42] The furniture of the Middle Ages was usually heavy, oak, and ornamented with carved designs.

The Hellenistic influence upon Byzantine furniture can be seen through the use of acanthus leaves, palmettes, bay and olive leaves as ornaments. Oriental influences manifest through rosettes, arabesques and the geometric stylisation of certain vegetal motifs. Christianity brings symbols in Byzantine ornamentation: the pigeon, fishes, the lamb and vines.^[43] The furniture from Byzantine houses and palaces was usually luxurious, highly decorated and finely ornamented. Stone, marble, metal, wood and ivory are used. Surfaces and ornaments are gilded, painted plychrome, plated with sheets of gold, emailed in bright colors, and covered in precious stones. The variety of Byzantine furniture is pretty big: tables with square, rectangle or round top, sumptuous decorated, made of wood sometimes inlaid, with bronze, ivory or silver ornaments; chairs with high backs and with wool blankets or animal furs, with coloured pillows, and then banks and stools; wardrobes were used only for storing books; cloths and valuable objects were kept in chests, with iron locks; the form of beds imitated the Roman ones, but have different designs of legs.^[44]

The main ornament of Gothic furniture and all applied arts is the ogive. The geometric rosette accompanies the ogive many times, having a big variety of forms. Architectural elements are used at furniture, at the beginning with purely decorative reasons, but later as structure elements. Besides the ogive, the main ornaments are: acanthus leaves, ivy, oak leaves, haulms, clovers, fleurs-de-lis, knights with shields, heads with crowns and characters from the Bible. Chests are the main type of Gothic furniture used by the majority of the population. Usually, the locks and escutcheon of chests have also an ornamental scope, being finely made.^[45]

• 
  Throne of Dagobert; 19th and 12th centuries (backrest); gilt bronze; unknown dimensions; Cabinet des Médailles (Paris)^[46]
• 
  Gothic coffret (Minnekästchen); circa 1325–1350; oak, inlay, tempera, wrought-iron mounts; overall: 12.1 x 27.3 x 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
• 
  Gothic chest; late 15th century; wood; 30.2 x 29.2 x 39.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  Gothic chest; late 15th century; walnut and iron; overall: 47 x 38.7 x 75.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  Romanian analogion; second quarter of the 16th century; carved, openwork and champlevé wood; 115 x 58 x 65 cm; from the Probota Monastery (Suceava County); National Museum of Art of Romania (Bucharest)^[47]
• 
  Russian Monomakhov throne, 1551, wood, unknown dimensions, Dormition Cathedral, Moscow

Along with the other arts, the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth century marked a rebirth in design, often inspired by the Greco-Roman tradition. A similar explosion of design, and renaissance of culture in general occurred in Northern Europe, starting in the fifteenth century.

• 
  Sideboard; c.1524; wood; height: 144 cm; Château d'Écouen (Écouen, France)^[48]
• 
  Wardrobe; c.1530; carved walnut; height: 230 cm; Château d'Écouen^[49]
• 
  Cassone (chest); c.1550–1560; carved and partially gilded walnut; 86.4 x 181.9 x 67.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
• 
  Cupboard; c.1570; wood; height: 246 cm; Château d'Écouen^[50]
• 
  Cupboard; c. 1580; walnut and oak, partially gilded and painted; height: 2.06 m, width: 1.50 m; Louvre^[51]

The 17th century, in both Southern and Northern Europe, was characterized by opulent, often gilded Baroque designs that frequently incorporated a profusion of vegetal and scrolling ornament. Starting in the eighteenth century, furniture designs began to develop more rapidly. Although there were some styles that belonged primarily to one nation, such as Palladianism in Great Britain or Louis Quinze in French furniture, others, such as the Rococo and Neoclassicism were perpetuated throughout Western Europe.

During the 18th century, the fashion was set in England by the French art. In the beginning of the century Boulle cabinets were at the peak of their popularity and Louis XIV was reigning in France. In this era, most of the furniture had metal and enamelled decorations in it and some of the furniture was covered in inlays of marbles lapis lazuli, and porphyry and other stones. By mid-century this Baroque style was displaced by the graceful curves, shining ormolu, and intricate marquetry of the Rococo style, which in turn gave way around 1770 to the more severe lines of Neoclassicism, modeled after the architecture of ancient Greece and Rome.^[52] Creating a mass market for furniture, the distinguished London cabinet maker Thomas Chippendale's The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Director (1754) is regarded as the "first comprehensive trade catalogue of its kind".^[53]

There is something so distinct in the development of taste in French furniture, marked out by the three styles to which the three monarchs have given the name of "Louis Quatorze", "Louis Quinze", and "Louis Seize". This will be evident to anyone who will visit, first the Palace of Versailles, then the Grand Trianon, and afterwards the Petit Trianon.^[54]

• 
  Baroque four-poster bed from the Château d'Effiat; c.1650; natural walnut, chiselled Genoa silk velvet and embroidered silks; 295 cm; Louvre^[55]
• 
  Baroque pier table; 1685–1690; carved, gessoed, and gilded wood, with a marble top; 83.6 × 128.6 × 71.6 cm; Art Institute of Chicago (US)^[56]
• 
  Baroque cupboard; by André Charles Boulle; c.1700; ebony and amaranth veneering, polychrome woods, brass, tin, shell, and horn marquetry on an oak frame, gilt-bronze; 255.5 x 157.5 cm; Louvre^[57]
• 
  Baroque commode; by André Charles Boulle; c.1710-1732; walnut veneered with ebony and marquetry of engraved brass and tortoiseshell, gilt-bronze mounts, antique marble top; 87.6 x 128.3 x 62.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)^[58]
• 
  Baroque slant-front desk; by Heinrich Ludwig Rohde or Ferdinand Plitzner; c.1715–1725; marquetry with maple, amaranth, mahogany, and walnut on spruce and oak; 90 × 84 × 44.5 cm; Art Institute of Chicago^[59]
• 
  Rococo console table; 18th century; carved and gilded wood, marble top; 63.2 × 60 × 25.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  Rococo commode; by Charles Cressent; c.1745–1749; pine and oak veneered with amaranth and bois satiné, walnut, oak, pine; gilt-bronze, portoro marble top; 87.6 x 139.7 x 57.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  Rococo slant-top desk; c.1750; oak, kingwood marquetry, amaranth wood, satiné, gilt bronze; unknown dimensions; Musée des Arts Décoratifs (Paris)^[60]
• 
  Rococo side table (commode en console); by Bernard II van Risamburgh; c.1755-1760; Japanese lacquer, gilt-bronze and Sarrancolin marble top; height: 90.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  Bureau du Roi (Rococo); by Jean-François Oeben and Jean Henri Riesener; 1760–1769; bronze, marquetry of a variety of fine woods and Sèvres porcelain; 147.3 x 192.5 x 105; Palace of Versailles (Versailles, France)^[61]
• 
  Louis XVI style commode of Madame du Barry; by Martin Carlin (attribution); 1772; oak base veneered with pearwood, rosewood and amaranth, soft-paste Sèvres porcelain, bronze gilt, white marble; 87 x 119 cm; Louvre^[62]
• 
  Louis XVI style roll-top desk of Marie-Antoinette; by Jean-Henri Riesener; 1784; oak and pine frame, sycamore, amaranth and rosewood veneer, bronze gilt; 103.6 x 113.4 cm; Louvre^[63]
• 
  Louis XVI style writing table of Marie-Antoinette; by Adam Weisweiler; 1784; oak, ebony and sycamore veneer, Japanese lacquer, steel, bronze gilt; 73.7 x 81. 2 cm; Louvre^[63]
• 
  Louis XVI style folding stool (pliant); 1786; carved and painted beechwood, covered in pink silk; 46.4 × 68.6 × 51.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  Louis XVI style armchair (fauteuil) from Louis XVI's Salon des Jeux at Saint Cloud; 1788; carved and gilded walnut, gold brocaded silk (not original); overall: 100 × 74.9 × 65.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

The nineteenth century is usually defined by concurrent revival styles, including Gothic, Neoclassicism, and Rococo. The design reforms of the late century introduced the Aesthetic movement and the Arts and Crafts movement. Art Nouveau was influenced by both of these movements. Shaker-style furniture became popular during this time in North America as well.

• 
  Empire desk chair; c.1805–1808; mahogany, gilt bronze and satin-velvet upholstery; 87.6 × 59.7 × 64.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
• 
  Empire console table; 1804–1814; mahogany, gilded bronze, chiseled gilded bronze and fossil gray marble; 91.5 x 154 x 73.5 cm; Musée des Arts Décoratifs (Paris)^[64]
• 
  Empire throne; by Bernard Poyet and François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter; 1805; carved and gilded wood, covered in red velvet with silver embroidery; 160 x 110 x 82 cm; Musée des Arts Décoratifs^[65]
• 
  Egyptian Revival coin cabinet; 1809–1819; mahogany (probably Swietenia mahagoni), with applied and inlaid silver; 90.2 x 50.2 x 37.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  King of Rome's Cradle (Empire); by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon, Henri Victor Roguier, Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot and Pierre-Philippe Thomire; 1811; wood, silver gilt, mother-of-pearl, sheets of copper covered with velvet, silk and tulle, decorated with silver and gold thread; height: 216 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna, Austria)^[66]
• 
  Chair (one of a pair) from the Gothic Cabinet of the Osmond Countess; by François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter; before 1817–1820; gilt wood; unknown dimensions; Petit Palais (Paris)
• 
  Gothic Revival Chair; 1845–1865; walnut frame with upholstered seat and back; unknown dimensions; Huntington Museum of Art (Huntington, West Virginia, USA)
• 
  tête-à-tête (Second Empire); 1850–1860; rosewood, ash, pine and walnut; 113 x 132.1 x 109.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
• 
  Desk; designed by Frank Furness, made by Daniel Pabst; 1870–1871; walnut, walnut veneer, rosewood (knobs), brass, iron, steel and glass; 196.9 × 157.5 × 81.9 cm; Philadelphia Museum of Art (Philadelphia, USA)^[67]
• 
  Table (Rococo Revival); c.1880; wood, ormolu and lacquer; 68.9 x 26.99 x 38.42 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Los Angeles, USA)
• 
  Chair (Art Nouveau); by Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo; c.1883; mahogany; 97.79 x 49.53 x 49.53 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art
• 
  Desk (Art Nouveau), presented at the 1900 Paris Exposition; by Émile Gallé; 1900; molded and carved oak, with chiseled and patinated bronze; height: 108.5 cm; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)^[68]

This design was in many ways rooted in necessity and emphasizes both form and materials. Early British Colonial American^[vague] chairs and tables are often constructed with turned spindles and chair backs often constructed with steaming to bend the wood. Wood choices tend to be deciduous hardwoods with a particular emphasis on the wood of edible or fruit bearing trees such as cherry or walnut.^[69]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2023)

The first three-quarters of the 20th century is seen as the march towards Modernism. The furniture designers of Art Deco, De Stijl, Bauhaus, Jugendstil, Wiener Werkstätte, and Vienna Secession all worked to some degree within the Modernist motto.

Born from the Bauhaus and Streamline Moderne came the post-World War II style "Mid-Century Modern". Mid-Century Modern materials developed during the war including laminated plywood, plastics, and fiberglass. Prime examples include furniture designed by George Nelson Associates, Charles and Ray Eames, Paul McCobb, Florence Knoll, Harry Bertoia, Eero Saarinen, Harvey Probber, Vladimir Kagan and Danish modern designers including Finn Juhl and Arne Jacobsen.

Industrialisation, Post-Modernism, and the Internet have allowed furniture design to become more accessible to a wider range of people than ever before. There are many modern styles of furniture design, each with roots in Classical, Modernist, and Post-Modern design and art movements. The growth of Maker Culture across the Western sphere of influence has encouraged higher participation and development of new, more accessible furniture design techniques. One unique outgrowth of this post-modern furniture design trajectory is live edge, which incorporates the natural surface of a tree as part of a furniture object, heralding a resurgence of these natural shapes and textures within the home.^[1] Additionally, the use of epoxy resin has become more prevalent in DIY furniture styles.

Great efforts from individuals, governments, and companies has led to the manufacturing of products with higher sustainability known as Ecodesign. This new line of furniture is based on environmentally friendly design. Its use and popularity are increasing each year.^[70]

Postmodern design, intersecting the Pop art movement, gained steam in the 1960s and 70s, promoted in the 80s by groups such as the Italy-based Memphis movement. Transitional furniture is intended to fill a place between Traditional and Modern tastes.^{[citation needed]}

Asian furniture has a quite distinct history. The traditions out of India, China, Korea, Pakistan, Indonesia (Bali and Java) and Japan are some of the best known, but places such as Mongolia, and the countries of South East Asia have unique facets of their own.

The use of uncarved wood and bamboo and the use of heavy lacquers are well known Chinese styles. It is worth noting that Chinese furniture varies dramatically from one dynasty to the next. Chinese ornamentation is highly inspired by paintings, with floral and plant life motifs including bamboo trees, chrysanthemums, waterlilies, irises, magnolias, flowers and branches of cherry, apple, apricot and plum, or elongated bamboo leaves; animal ornaments include lions, bulls, ducks, peacocks, parrots, pheasants, roosters, ibises and butterflies. The dragon is the symbol of earth fertility, and of the power and wisdom of the emperor. Lacquers are mostly populated with princesses, various Chinese people, soldiers, children, ritually and daily scenes. Architectural features tend toward geometric ornaments, like meanders and labyrinths. The interior of a Chinese house was simple and sober. All Chinese furniture is made of wood, usually ebony, teak, or rosewood for heavier furniture (chairs, tables and benches) and bamboo, pine and larch for lighter furniture (stools and small chairs).^[71]

Traditional Japanese furniture is well known for its minimalist style, extensive use of wood, high-quality craftsmanship and reliance on wood grain instead of painting or thick lacquer. Japanese chests are known as Tansu, known for elaborate decorative iron work, and are some of the most sought-after of Japanese antiques. The antiques available generally date back to the Tokugawa and Meiji periods. Both the technique of lacquering and the specific lacquer (resin of Rhus vernicifera) originated in China, but the lacquer tree also grows well in Japan. The recipes of preparation are original to Japan: resin is mixed with wheat flour, clay or pottery powder, turpentine, iron powder or wood coal. In ornamentation, the chrysanthemum, known as kiku, the national flower, is a very popular ornament, including the 16-petal chrysanthemum symbolizing the Emperor. Cherry and apple flowers are used for decorating screens, vases and shōji. Common animal ornaments include dragons, carps, cranes, gooses, tigers, horses and monkeys; representations of architecture such as houses, pavilions, towers, torii gates, bridges and temples are also common. The furniture of a Japanese house consists of tables, shelves, wardrobes, small holders for flowers, bonsais or for bonkei, boxes, lanterns with wooden frames and translucent paper, neck and elbow holders, and jardinieres.^[72]

• 
  Chinese low-back armchair; late 16th-18th century (late Ming dynasty to Qing dynasty); huanghuali rosewood; Arthur M. Sackler Gallery (Washington D.C.)
• 
  Japanese incense guessing game; 1615–1868; lacquer; overall: 23 x 25.4 x 16.6 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)
• 
  Chinese pedestal desk; 1644–1911; huanghuali wood (yellow flowering pear) with brass fittings; Portland Art Museum (Portland, Oregon, USA)
• 
  Japanese chest with cartouche showing figures on donkeys in a landscape; 1750–1800; carved red lacquer on wood core with metal fittings and jade lock; 30.64 x 30.16 x 12.7 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (USA)
• 
  Japanese tiered food Box with stand; late 18th century; red lacquer over a wood core, with litharge painting and engraved gold designs; overall: 53 x 68 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art
• 
  Chinese moon-gate bed; circa 1876; satinwood (huang lu), other Asian woods and ivory; Peabody Essex Museum (Salem, Massachusetts, USA)
• 
  Chinese canopy bed; late 19th or early 20th century; carved lacquered and gilded wood; Montreal Museum of Fine Arts (Montreal, Canada)
• 
  Japanese writing table; early 20th century; lacquered wood with silver fittings and various other materials; height: 12.3 cm, length: 60.96 cm, width: 36.83 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

Seating is amongst the oldest known furniture types, and authors including Encyclopædia Britannica regard it as the most important.^[2] In addition to the functional design, seating has had an important decorative element from ancient times to the present day. This includes carved and sculpted pieces intended as works of art, as well as the styling of seats to indicate social importance, with senior figures or leaders granted the use of specially designed seats.^[2]

The simplest form of seat is the chair,^[73] which is a piece of furniture designed to allow a single person to sit down, which has a back and legs, as well as a platform for sitting.^[74] Chairs often feature cushions made from various fabrics.^[75]

• 
  Ancient Egyptian armchair of Tutankhamun; 1336–1326 BC; wood, ebony, ivory and gold leaf; height: 71 cm; Exposition of Tutankhamun Treasure in Paris (2019)
• 
  Neoclassical chair; circa 1772; mahogany, covered in modern red Morocco leather; height: 97.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
• 
  Louis XVI armchair (Fauteuil à la reine); 1780–1785; carved and gilded walnut, and embroidered silk satin; height: 102.2 cm, width: 74.9 cm, depth: 77.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• 
  Louis XVI settee; designed in circa 1786, woven 1790–91, settee frame from the second half 19th century; carved and gilded wood, with wool and silk; 107.3 × 191.5 × 71.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

All different types of woods have unique signature marks that can help in easy identification of the type. Hardwood and softwood are the two main categories for wood.

Both hardwoods and softwoods are used in furniture manufacturing, and each has its own specific uses. Deciduous trees, which have broad leaves that change color periodically throughout the year, are the source of hardwood. Coniferous trees, also known as cone-bearing trees, have small leaves or needles that stay on the tree throughout the year.^[76][77]

Common softwoods used include pine, redwood and yew. Higher quality furniture tends to be made out of hardwood, including oak, maple, mahogany, teak, walnut, cherry and birch. Highest quality wood will have been air dried to rid it of its moisture.^[78]

A popular furniture hardwood is American black cherry. Cherry is a light reddish brown to brown color that intensifies into a rich color as it ages, and grows mostly in the eastern United States. Cherry has a tighter grain than birch and is softer. Much cherry lumber is narrow, and it has been utilized to make many lovely classic furniture pieces.^[76]

Birch is a sturdy, durable, even-textured hardwood that is common in the United States and Canada. The wood appears white or creamy yellow to light brown with a crimson tinge in its natural state. Birch is frequently stained to complement other types of wood in furniture. Birch is used to make a lot of transparent, cabinet-grade plywood because it absorbs stain well and finishes beautifully. Birch is frequently used to construct interior doors and cupboards in addition to furniture.^[76]

Rubberwood is a widely used material in modern Asian furniture manufacturing.^[79] Affordable and fast-growing, it is often employed as a sustainable substitute for traditional Western hardwoods, allowing manufacturers to replicate the look and feel of classic lumber in contemporary furniture.^[80]

Known for its durability and sustainability, wood is widely used in furniture manufacturing. Dining tables are among the most common furniture made from wood, and there are many types of wooden tables—such as acacia, birch, mango, and oak.

Restoring a piece of furniture may imply attempting to repair and revive the original finish in some way. More often than not, this entails removing the existing treatment and preparing the raw wood for a new finish. Methods for repair depend on what kind of wood it is: solid or veneered, hardwood or softwood, open grained or closed grained. These variables can sometimes decide if a piece of furniture is worth repairing, as well as the type of repairs and finish it will require if it is restored. The 3 methods of restoring furniture are rejuvenate, repair, and refinish.

Rejuvenate The piece can easily be restored by just cleaning and waxing the surface while preserving the current finish. It works on wooden furniture that is still in good shape and is the simplest way to clean it.

Repair This process can fix dents and cracks by touching up some worn-out areas without removing the surface with this technique, the finish can be maintained while repairing the object with specialized products.

Refinish Remove anything that is left for example any paint with a finish-stripper product or lightly sanding the area down and then applying wood finish like oil wax in order to protect the secure the wood.^[76]

Cleaning Remove dirt, dust, and grime from the furniture using a mild soap or specialized furniture cleaner.

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• EN 527 Office furniture – Work tables and desks: This European standard specifies requirements and test methods for office work tables and desks, ensuring their functionality and safety.
• EN 1335 Office furniture – Office work chair: This European standard sets requirements for office chairs, focusing on ergonomics and comfort to promote user well-being and productivity.
• ANSI/BIFMA X 5.1 Office Seating: This American National Standard, published by the Business and Institutional Furniture Manufacturers Association (BIFMA), provides requirements for the performance and durability of office seating.
• DIN 4551 Office furniture; revolving office chair: This German standard covers revolving office chairs with adjustable backrests, armrests, and height, ensuring their quality and safety.
• EN 581 Outdoor furniture – Seating and tables for camping, domestic and contract use: This European standard specifies the requirements for outdoor seating and tables used in various settings, including camping and domestic use.
• EN 1728:2014 Furniture – Seating – Test methods for the determination of strength and durability: This European standard outlines test methods to assess the strength and durability of seating furniture, last updated in 2014.
• EN 1730:2012 Furniture – Test methods for the determination of stability, strength, and durability: This European standard provides test methods to evaluate the stability, strength, and durability of various types of furniture.
• BS 4875 Furniture. Strength and stability of furniture: This British Standard focuses on determining the stability of non-domestic storage furniture, helping ensure its safety and reliability.
• EN 747 Furniture – Bunk beds and high beds – Test methods for the determination of stability, strength, and durability: This European standard sets test methods to assess the stability, strength, and durability of bunk beds and high beds.
• EN 13150 Workbenches for laboratories – Safety requirements and test methods: This European standard specifies safety requirements and test methods for laboratory workbenches to ensure safe working conditions.
• EN 1729 Educational furniture, chairs, and tables for educational institutions: This European standard outlines requirements for educational furniture, including chairs and tables, to support comfort and ergonomics in educational settings.
• RAL-GZ 430 Furniture standard from Germany: RAL is a German standardization organization, and RAL-GZ 430 provides guidelines and standards for various types of furniture in Germany.
• NEN 1812 Furniture standard from the Netherlands: NEN is the Dutch Institute for Standardization, and NEN 1812 sets standards for furniture in the Netherlands.
• GB 28007-2011 Children's furniture – General technical requirements for children's furniture: This Chinese standard specifies technical requirements for children's furniture designed and manufactured for children aged 3 to 14.
• BS 5852: 2006 Methods of test for assessment of the ignitability of upholstered seating: This British Standard outlines test methods to assess the ignitability of upholstered seating, both by smoldering and flaming ignition sources.
• BS 7176: This British Standard specifies requirements for the resistance to ignition of upholstered furniture used in non-domestic settings through composite testing. These standards help ensure the quality, safety, and performance of various types of furniture in different regions and applications. Manufacturers and consumers often use these standards as guidelines to meet specific requirements and ensure product reliability.

• Casters which make some furniture moveable
• Furniture designer
• Furniture museum
• Furniture repair
• Metal furniture
• Multifunctional furniture

Wikiquote has quotations related to Furniture.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Furniture.

• Images of online furniture design available from the Visual Arts Data Service (VADS) – including images from the Design Council Slide Collection.
• History of Furniture Timeline Archived 14 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine From Maltwood Art Museum and Gallery, University of Victoria
• Illustrated History Of Furniture
• Home Economics Archive: Tradition, Research, History (HEARTH)
  An e-book collection of over 1,000 books on home economics spanning 1850 to 1950, created by Cornell University's Mann Library. Includes several hundred works on the furniture and interior design in this period, itemized in a specific bibliography.
• American Furniture in The Metropolitan Museum of Art, a fully digitized 2 volume exhibition catalog

Process of making objects from wood

"Woodwork" redirects here. For the Fred Frith album, see Woodwork (album).

Woodworking is the skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinetry, furniture making, wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning.

History

[edit]

Along with stone, clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans. Microwear analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials.

Among the earlliest finds of woodworking are shaped sticks displaying notches from Kalambo Falls in southern Africa, dating to around 476,000 years ago.^[1] The Clacton spearhead from Clacton-on-Sea, England, dating to around 400,000 years ago,^[2] the Schöningen spears, from Schöningen (Germany) dating around 300,000 years ago^[3] and the Lehringen spear from northern Germany, dating to around 120,000 years ago,^[4] provide some of the first examples of wooden hunting implements. Wooden tools likely used for domestic activities including probable awls have also been found at Schöningen.^[5]

Flint tools were used for carving. Since Neolithic times, carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from the Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra.

Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark and wooden folding-chairs. The site of Fellbach-Schmieden in Germany has provided fine examples of wooden animal statues from the Iron Age. Wooden idols from the La Tène period known from a sanctuary at the source of the Seine in France.

Ancient Egypt

[edit]

There is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in ancient Egypt.^[6] Woodworking is depicted in many extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture (such as stools, chairs, tables, beds, chests) have been preserved. Tombs represent a large collection of these artifacts and the inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, after 2000 BC bronze as iron working was unknown until much later.^[7]

Commonly used woodworking tools included axes, adzes, chisels, pull saws, and bow drills. Mortise and tenon joints are attested from the earliest Predynastic period. These joints were strengthened using pegs, dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in the New Kingdom period.^[8] Ancient Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes for finishing, though the composition of these varnishes is unknown. Although different native acacias were used, as was the wood from the local sycamore and tamarisk trees, deforestation in the Nile valley resulted in the need for the importation of wood, notably cedar, but also Aleppo pine, boxwood and oak, starting from the Second Dynasty.^[9]

Ancient Rome

[edit]

Woodworking was essential to the Romans. It provided material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Wood also provided pipes, dye, waterproofing materials, and energy for heat.^{[10]: 1 }Although most examples of Roman woodworking have been lost,^{[10]: 2 } the literary record preserved much of the contemporary knowledge. Vitruvius dedicates an entire chapter of his De architectura to timber, preserving many details.^[11] Pliny, while not a botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants, providing a wealth of information on trees and their uses.^[12]

Ancient China

[edit]

The progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban (魯班 pinyin: Lǔbān) and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and Autumn period (771 to 476 BC). Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane, chalk-line, and other tools to China. His teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing (魯班經, "Manuscript of Lu Ban")(魯班經 pinyin: Lǔbān jīng). Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items such as flower pots, tables, altars, etc., and also contains extensive instructions concerning Feng Shui. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese furniture was so famous.

Modern day

[edit]

With the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry, woodwork as a field has changed. The development of Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines, for example, has made it possible to mass-produce and reproduce products faster, with less waste, and often with more complex designs than ever before. CNC wood routers can carve complicated and highly detailed shapes into flat stock to create signs or art. Rechargeable power tools speed up the creation of many projects and require much less physical strength than in the past—for example, when boring multiple holes.

Skilled fine woodworking, however, remains a craft pursued by many. There remains demand for handcrafted work such as furniture and art; however, with the rate and cost of production, the price for consumers is much higher.

Modern wood carving usually refers to works of wood art produced by woodcarvers in the form of contemporary art. This type of woodcarving often combines traditional techniques with more modern artistic styles and concepts. Modern woodcarving can be produced in a variety of forms and styles, from realist to abstract carvings, and often uses unusual wood materials such as rain tree wood or wood with unique textures to highlight the uniqueness of the work.

In recent years, the art of modern woodcarving has become increasingly popular among woodworkers and visual art enthusiasts not only in Asia, but also around the world. Modern woodcarving art is often exhibited in art galleries and museums, and can be seen in several global contemporary art exhibitions.

Styles and designs

[edit]

Woodworking, especially furniture making, has many different designs/styles. Throughout its history, woodworking designs and styles have changed. Some of the more common styles are listed below. Traditional furniture styles usually include styles that have been around for long periods of time and have shown a mark of wealth and luxury for centuries. More modern furniture styles are commonly used over the past few hundred years.^[13]

Common woodworking/furniture styles

Traditional & timeless styles	Modern furniture styles
Jacobean	Antique
Dutch	American colonial
Victorian	Traditional
Art Deco	Vintage
Sheraton	Rustic
	Retro
	Modern
	Minimalism
	Contemporary

Materials

[edit]

See also Wood: Properties and Tonewood: Properties.

Historically, woodworkers relied upon the woods native to their region, until transportation and trade innovations made more exotic woods available to the craftsman. Woods are typically sorted into three basic types: hardwoods typified by tight grain and derived from broadleaf trees, softwoods from coniferous trees, and man-made materials such as plywood and MDF.

Hardwoods, botanically known as angiosperms, are deciduous and shed their leaves annually with temperature changes.^[14] Softwoods come from trees botanically known as gymnosperms, which are coniferous, cone-bearing, and stay green year round.^[14] Although a general pattern, softwoods are not necessarily always "softer" than hardwoods, and vice versa.^[15]

Softwood is most commonly found in the regions of the world with lower temperatures and is typically less durable, lighter in weight, and more vulnerable to pests and fungal attacks in comparison to hardwoods. They typically have a paler color and a more open grain than hardwoods, which contributes to the tendency of felled softwood to shrink and swell as it dries.^[15] Softwoods usually have a lower density, around 432–592 kg/m³, which can compromise its strength.^[15] Density, however, does vary within both softwoods and hardwoods depending on the wood's geographical origin and growth rate. However, the lower density of softwoods also allows it to have a greater strength with lighter weight. In the United States, softwoods are typically cheaper and more readily available and accessible.^[15] Most softwoods are suitable for general construction, especially framing, trim, and finish work, and carcassing.^[16][15]

Hardwoods are separated into two categories, temperate and tropical hardwoods, depending on their origin. Temperate hardwoods are found in the regions between the tropics and poles, and are of particular interest to wood workers for their cost-effective aesthetic appeal and sustainable sources.^[15] Tropical hardwoods are found within the equatorial belt, including Africa, Asia, and South America. Hardwoods flaunt a higher density, around 1041 kg/m³ as a result of slower growing rates and is more stable when drying.^[15] As a result of its high density, hardwoods are typically heavier than softwoods but can also be more brittle.^[15] While there are an abundant number of hardwood species, only 200 are common enough and pliable enough to be used for woodworking.^[17] Hardwoods have a wide variety of properties, making it easy to find a hardwood to suit nearly any purpose, but they are especially suitable for outdoor use due to their strength and resilience to rot and decay.^[15] The coloring of hardwoods ranges from light to very dark, making it especially versatile for aesthetic purposes. However, because hardwoods are more closely grained, they are typically harder to work than softwoods. They are also harder to acquire in the United States and, as a result, are more expensive.^[15]

Typically furniture such as tables and chairs is made using solid stock from hardwoods due to its strength and resistance to warping.^[16] Additionally, they also have a greater variety of grain patterns and color and take a finish better which allows the woodworker to exercise a great deal of artistic liberty. Hardwoods can be cut more cleanly and leave less residue on sawblades and other woodworking tools.^[16] Cabinet/fixture makers employ the use of plywood and other man made panel products. Some furniture, such as the Windsor chair involve green woodworking, shaping with wood while it contains its natural moisture prior to drying.

Common softwoods used for furniture

[edit]

Cedar

[edit]

Cedars are strong, aromatic softwoods that are capable of enduring outdoor elements, the most common of which is the western red cedar. Western red cedar can sustain wet environments without succumbing to rot, and as a result is commonly used for outdoor projects such as patios, outdoor furniture, and building exteriors. This wood can be easily found at most home centers in the US and Canada for a moderate price.^[18]

Fir

[edit]

Within the USA fir, also known as Douglas fir, is inexpensive and common at local home centers. It has a characteristic straight, pronounced grain with a red-brown tint. However, its grain pattern is relatively plain and it does not stain well, so fir is commonly used when the finished product will be painted. While commonly used for building, this softwood would also be suitable for furniture-making.^[18]

Pine

[edit]

White pine, ponderosa, and southern yellow pine are common species used in furniture-making. White pine and ponderosa are typically used for indoor projects, while Southern yellow pine is recommended for outdoor projects due to its durability.^[19]

Common hardwoods used for furniture

[edit]

Ash

[edit]

Ash is relatively easy to work with and takes stain well, but its white to light brown color with a straight grain is visually appealing on its own. However, ash is much more difficult to find than other common woods, and will not be found at the local home center. Larger lumber yards should have it in stock.^[18]

Beech

[edit]

Hardwood of the European species Fagus sylvatica is widely used for furniture framing and carcase construction, in plywood, musical instruments (drum shells and piano blocks) and turned items like knobs.^[20]

Birch

[edit]

Whether yellow or white birch, these hardwoods are stable and easy to work with. Despite this, birch is prone to blotching when stained, so painting birch products is probably best. Birch is easily found at many home centers and is a relatively inexpensive hardwood.^[18]

Cherry

[edit]

Popular and easy to work with, cherry wood is in high demand for its reddish-brown color and ease of staining and finishing. Cherry likely will not be at the local home center, but should be at a lumberyard for a somewhat expensive price.^[18] This hardwood is a very common material for furniture, and is resistant to normal wear-and-tear, but it is best for indoor pieces.^[21]

Mahogany

[edit]

A hardwood, mahogany has a trademark reddish-brown to deep-red tint and is known as "one of the great furniture woods". However, mahogany is not typically grown in sustainable forests, and thus runs a steep price at local lumber yards.^[18]

Oak

[edit]

With two varieties, red and white, oak is known to be easy to work with and relatively strong. However, furniture makers often opt for white oak over red oak for its attractive figure and moisture-resistance.^[18] Depending on the kind needed, oak can probably be found at a local home center or a lumberyard for a bit pricier than other hardwoods.^[22][18][21]

Maple

[edit]

With strength, sturdiness, and durability, maple is a common material for furniture for the bedroom and even china cabinets. Maple is moisture-resistant and frequently displays stand-out swirls in the wood grain, an aesthetically pleasing differentiator from other hardwoods. While most commonly a lighter color, maple also can take stains and paint well.^[21]

Factors in choosing materials

[edit]

There are many factors to consider when deciding what type of wood to use for a project. One of the most important is the workability of the wood: the way in which it responds when worked by hand or tools, the quality of the grain, and how it responds to adhesives and finishes.^[15] When the workability of wood is high, it offers a lower resistance when cutting and has a diminished blunting effect on tools.^[15] Highly workable wood is easier to manipulate into desired forms. If the wood grain is straight and even, it will be much easier to create strong and durable glued joints. Additionally, it will help protect the wood from splitting when nailed or screwed.^[15] Coarse grains require a lengthy process of filing and rubbing down the grain to produce a smooth result.^[15]

Another important factor is the durability of the wood, especially in regards to moisture. If the finished project will be exposed to moisture (e.g. outdoor projects) or high humidity or condensation (e.g. in kitchens or bathrooms), then the wood needs to be especially durable in order to prevent rot. Because of their oily qualities, many tropical hardwoods such as teak and mahogany are popular for such applications.^[15]

Woods with good working properties

[edit]

• Agba (Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum)
• Alder (Alnus glutinosa)
• Basswood (Tilia americana)
• Obeah (Triplochiton scleroxylon)
• Pine (Pinus)
• Western cedar (Thuja plicata)

Very durable woods

[edit]

• Teak (Tectona grandis)
• Iron (Milicia excelsa)
• Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata)
• Chestnut (Castanea)
• Oak (Quercus)
• Cedar (Thuja)

Woods used for carving

[edit]

While many woods can be used for carving, there are some clear favorites, including aspen, basswood, butternut, black walnut, and oak.^[23] Because it has almost no grain and is notably soft, Basswood is particularly popular with beginner carvers. It is used in many lower-cost instruments like guitars and electric basses.^[23] Aspen is similarly soft, although slightly harder, and readily available and inexpensive.^[23] Butternut has a deeper hue than basswood and aspen and has a nice grain that is easy to carve, and thus friendly for beginners. It is also suitable for furniture.^[23] While more expensive than basswood, aspen, and butternut, black walnut is a popular choice for its rich color and grain.^[23] Lastly, oak is a strong, sturdy, and versatile wood for carving with a defined grain. It is also a popular wood for furniture making.^[23]

Tools

[edit]

Each area of woodworking requires a different variation of tools. Power tools and hand tools are both used for woodworking. Many modern woodworkers choose to use power tools in their trade for the added ease and to save time. However, many woodworkers still choose to use only hand tools for several reasons such as tradition, the experience and the added character to the work, while some choose to use only hand tools simply for their own enjoyment.

Hand tools

[edit]

Hand tools are classified as tools that receive power only from the hands that are holding them. Edged hand woodworking tools need to be sharpened which is done using the sharpening jig and sharpening stone. A more novel method involves the use of sandpaper.^[24] The more common modern hand tools are:

Hand tools

Clamps	Woodworking clamps. Top left two are f-style clamps. On the right is a quick-grip Irwin clamp. In the bottom middle is a spring clamp.	Clamps are used to hold a workpiece while being worked. Clamps vary in all shapes and sizes from small c-clamps to very large bar or strap clamps.[25] A vise is a form of clamp, temporarily or permanently mounted as required. A woodworking vise is a vise specialized to the needs of a woodworker; numerous types have evolved.
Chisels	Five woodworking wood chisels	Chisels are tools with a long blade, a cutting edge, and a handle. Used for cutting and shaping wood or other materials.[25]
Claw hammer	A common hammer, the claw hammer, used in woodworking and other activities	The claw hammer, which can hammer, pry, and pull nails, is the most common hammer used in woodworking.[25]
Hand plane	Two woodworking hand planes	A hand plane is used to surface aspects of a workpiece.
Square	A try square. A common style of square in woodworking usually used for 90 degree angles	The square is used to mark angles on any workpiece. An adjustable square also includes a ruler. A speed square can mark 90 and 45-degree fixed angles and any angle between 0 and 90 degrees using its long axis.[25]
Tape measure	Tape measure	A tape measure is a retractable or flexible ruler that has measurement increments as small as 1/32" or 1 millimetre.
Handsaw	Three old handsaws	A handsaw, according to Cambridge University, "a saw that is operated by hand rather than using electricity or a motor."[26]
Files & Rasps	Top two are files. The bottom (orange-handled) tool is a rasp.	Both files and rasps are used to grind down wood material either to make the surface flat, rounded, concaved, or many other shapes. Rasps make deeper cuts while files make smaller and less harsh cuts on the wood. The difference between the two is mainly their teeth size.[27]

 

Power tools

[edit]

Power tools are tools that are powered by an external energy such as a battery, motor, or a power cable connected to a wall outlet. The more common power tools are:^[25]

Power tools

Drill	Cordless electric power drill.	The drill is a tool used to drill a hole or to insert a screw into a workpiece.[25]
Palm sander	Two palm sanders. Left sander is an orbital palm sander. The sander on the right is a mouse sander. Which uses vibration instead of orbital motions.	A palm sander is a small powered sander that uses either a vibration or orbital motion to move a piece of sand paper upon the workpiece making very fine modifications in smoothing your product.[25]
Compound miter saw	Electric compound miter saw.	A compound miter saw, also known as a chop saw is a stationary saw used for making precise cuts across the grain path of a board. These cuts can be at any chosen angle that the particular saw is capable of.[25]
Table saw	Electric plug-in tablesaw for woodworking.	A table saw is intended to make long precise cuts along the grain pattern of the board known as rip cuts. Most table saws offer the option of a beveled rip cut.[25]
Thickness planer		A thickness planer is used to smooth the surface of a board and make it the exact thickness across the entire board.[25]
Jointer	Powermatic jointer for woodworking.	A jointer is used to produce a flat surface along a board's length and to create a square (or 90°) edge between two adjoining surfaces.[25]
Band saw	Plug-in band saw.	A band saw[25] is used to make both irregularly shaped cuts and cuts through material thicker than a table saw can manage. It is much more robust[28] than the jigsaw or more delicate scroll saw, also regularly used in woodworking.
Drill press	Older drill press. Floor mounted drill press.	A drill press is an important tool used in woodworking. It is similar to a hand drill, but is a table/floor mounted machine that uses a shaft with a spring loaded handle to lower the drill bit into the wood or material. A hand drill is used by many woodworkers, but a drill press is even more accurate and powerful.[29]
Drum sander		A drum sander is a machine that uses a wide rotating sandpaper drum to sand down a piece of wood as it rolls through the tool. Similar to a planer in how it operates; but instead of blades, a drum sander uses sandpaper.[30]

• Feirer, John L. (1988). Cabinetmaking and Millwork. Mission Hills California: Glencoe Publishing. ISBN 0-02-675950-0.
• Frid, Tage (1979). Tage Frid Teaches Woodworking. Newton, Connecticut: Taunton Press. ISBN 0-918804-03-5.
• Joyce, Edward (1987). Encyclopedia of Furniture Making. revised and expanded by Alan Peters. New York: Sterling Publishing Co. ISBN 0-8069-6440-5.
• Roubo, André Jacob (1769–1784). The Art of the Joiner. Paris: French Academy of Sciences.

• Naylor, Andrew. A review of wood machining literature with a special focus on sawing. BioRes, April 2013
• History of Woodworking & Ancient Carpentry

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Woodworking.

Wikiversity has learning resources about Woodworking

• Video about the Zafimaniry peoples in Madagascar.
• Videos about woodworking published by Institut für den Wissenschaftlichen Film. Available in the AV-Portal of the German National Library of Science and Technology.
• Woodwork Magazine

Design of interior spaces to benefit its occupants

For other uses, see Interior design (disambiguation).

 

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Interior design is the art and science of enhancing the interior of a building to achieve a healthier and more aesthetically pleasing environment for the people using the space. With a keen eye for detail and a creative flair, an interior designer is someone who plans, researches, coordinates, and manages such enhancement projects. Interior design is a multifaceted profession that includes conceptual development, space planning, site inspections, programming, research, communicating with the stakeholders of a project, construction management, and execution of the design. Interior designers make use of fundamental design principles from the visual arts used to help viewers understand a given scene.

History and current terms

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In the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building.^[1]

The profession of interior design has been a consequence of the development of society and the complex architecture that has resulted from the development of industrial processes.

The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design has contributed to the development of the contemporary interior design profession. The profession of interior design is separate and distinct from the role of interior decorator, a term commonly used in the US; the term is less common in the UK, where the profession of interior design is still unregulated and therefore, strictly speaking, not yet officially a profession.

In ancient India, architects would also function as interior designers. This can be seen from the references of Vishwakarma the architect—one of the gods in Indian mythology. In these architects' design of 17th-century Indian homes, sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are seen inside the palaces, while during the medieval times wall art paintings were a common feature of palace-like mansions in India commonly known as havelis. While most traditional homes have been demolished to make way to modern buildings, there are still around 2000 havelis^[2] in the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan that display wall art paintings.

In ancient Egypt, "soul houses" (or models of houses) were placed in tombs as receptacles for food offerings. From these, it is possible to discern details about the interior design of different residences throughout the different Egyptian dynasties, such as changes in ventilation, porticoes, columns, loggias, windows, and doors.^[3]

Painting interior walls has existed for at least 5,000 years, with examples found as far north as the Ness of Brodgar,^[4] as have templated interiors, as seen in the associated Skara Brae settlement.^[5] It was the Greeks, and later Romans who added co-ordinated, decorative mosaics floors,^[6] and templated bath houses, shops, civil offices, Castra (forts) and temple, interiors, in the first millennia BC. With specialised guilds dedicated to producing interior decoration, and formulaic furniture, in buildings constructed to forms defined by Roman architects, such as Vitruvius: De architectura, libri decem (The Ten Books on Architecture).^[7][8]

Throughout the 17th and 18th century and into the early 19th century, interior decoration was the concern of the homemaker, or an employed upholsterer or craftsman who would advise on the artistic style for an interior space. Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete interior design for their buildings.

Commercial interior design and management

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In the mid-to-late 19th century, interior design services expanded greatly, as the middle class in industrial countries grew in size and prosperity and began to desire the domestic trappings of wealth to cement their new status. Large furniture firms began to branch out into general interior design and management, offering full house furnishings in a variety of styles. This business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly usurped by independent, often amateur, designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the professional interior design in the mid-20th century.^[9]

In the 1950s and 1960s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits. They framed their business more broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. To meet the growing demand for contract interior work on projects such as offices, hotels, and public buildings, these businesses became much larger and more complex, employing builders, joiners, plasterers, textile designers, artists, and furniture designers, as well as engineers and technicians to fulfil the job. Firms began to publish and circulate catalogs with prints for different lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes.^[9]

As department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up model rooms at national and international exhibitions in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the pioneering firms in this regard were Waring & Gillow, James Shoolbred, Mintons, and Holland & Sons. These traditional high-quality furniture making firms began to play an important role as advisers to unsure middle class customers on taste and style, and began taking out contracts to design and furnish the interiors of many important buildings in Britain.^[10]

This type of firm emerged in America after the Civil War. The Herter Brothers, founded by two German émigré brothers, began as an upholstery warehouse and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and interior decorators. With their own design office and cabinet-making and upholstery workshops, Herter Brothers were prepared to accomplish every aspect of interior furnishing including decorative paneling and mantels, wall and ceiling decoration, patterned floors, and carpets and draperies.^[11]

A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the middle class was the architect Owen Jones, one of the most influential design theorists of the nineteenth century.^[12] Jones' first project was his most important—in 1851, he was responsible for not only the decoration of Joseph Paxton's gigantic Crystal Palace for the Great Exhibition but also the arrangement of the exhibits within. He chose a controversial palette of red, yellow, and blue for the interior ironwork and, despite initial negative publicity in the newspapers, was eventually unveiled by Queen Victoria to much critical acclaim. His most significant publication was The Grammar of Ornament (1856),^[13] in which Jones formulated 37 key principles of interior design and decoration.

Jones was employed by some of the leading interior design firms of the day; in the 1860s, he worked in collaboration with the London firm Jackson & Graham to produce furniture and other fittings for high-profile clients including art collector Alfred Morrison as well as Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt.

In 1882, the London Directory of the Post Office listed 80 interior decorators. Some of the most distinguished companies of the period were Crace, Waring & Gillowm and Holland & Sons; famous decorators employed by these firms included Thomas Edward Collcutt, Edward William Godwin, Charles Barry, Gottfried Semper, and George Edmund Street.^[14]

Transition to professional interior design

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By the turn of the 20th century, amateur advisors and publications were increasingly challenging the monopoly that the large retail companies had on interior design. English feminist author Mary Haweis wrote a series of widely read essays in the 1880s in which she derided the eagerness with which aspiring middle-class people furnished their houses according to the rigid models offered to them by the retailers.^[15] She advocated the individual adoption of a particular style, tailor-made to the individual needs and preferences of the customer:

One of my strongest convictions, and one of the first canons of good taste, is that our houses, like the fish's shell and the bird's nest, ought to represent our individual taste and habits.

 

The move toward decoration as a separate artistic profession, unrelated to the manufacturers and retailers, received an impetus with the 1899 formation of the Institute of British Decorators; with John Dibblee Crace as its president, it represented almost 200 decorators around the country.^[16] By 1915, the London Directory listed 127 individuals trading as interior decorators, of which 10 were women. Rhoda Garrett and Agnes Garrett were the first women to train professionally as home decorators in 1874. The importance of their work on design was regarded at the time as on a par with that of William Morris. In 1876, their work – Suggestions for House Decoration in Painting, Woodwork and Furniture – spread their ideas on artistic interior design to a wide middle-class audience.^[17]

By 1900, the situation was described by The Illustrated Carpenter and Builder:^[18]

Until recently when a man wanted to furnish he would visit all the dealers and select piece by piece of furniture ....Today he sends for a dealer in art furnishings and fittings who surveys all the rooms in the house and he brings his artistic mind to bear on the subject.

In America, Candace Wheeler was one of the first woman interior designers and helped encourage a new style of American design. She was instrumental in the development of art courses for women in a number of major American cities and was considered a national authority on home design. An important influence on the new profession was The Decoration of Houses, a manual of interior design written by Edith Wharton with architect Ogden Codman in 1897 in America. In the book, the authors denounced Victorian-style interior decoration and interior design, especially those rooms that were decorated with heavy window curtains, Victorian bric-a-brac, and overstuffed furniture. They argued that such rooms emphasized upholstery at the expense of proper space planning and architectural design and were, therefore, uncomfortable and rarely used. The book is considered a seminal work, and its success led to the emergence of professional decorators working in the manner advocated by its authors, most notably Elsie de Wolfe.^[19]

Elsie De Wolfe was one of the first interior designers. Rejecting the Victorian style she grew up with, she chose a more vibrant scheme, along with more comfortable furniture in the home. Her designs were light, with fresh colors and delicate Chinoiserie furnishings, as opposed to the Victorian preference of heavy, red drapes and upholstery, dark wood and intensely patterned wallpapers. Her designs were also more practical;^[20] she eliminated the clutter that occupied the Victorian home, enabling people to entertain more guests comfortably. In 1905, de Wolfe was commissioned for the interior design of the Colony Club on Madison Avenue; its interiors garnered her recognition almost over night.^[21][22] She compiled her ideas into her widely read 1913 book, The House in Good Taste.^[23]

In England, Syrie Maugham became a legendary interior designer credited with designing the first all-white room. Starting her career in the early 1910s, her international reputation soon grew; she later expanded her business to New York City and Chicago.^[24] Born during the Victorian Era, a time characterized by dark colors and small spaces, she instead designed rooms filled with light and furnished in multiple shades of white and mirrored screens. In addition to mirrored screens, her trademark pieces included: books covered in white vellum, cutlery with white porcelain handles, console tables with plaster palm-frond, shell, or dolphin bases, upholstered and fringed sleigh beds, fur carpets, dining chairs covered in white leather, and lamps of graduated glass balls, and wreaths.^[25]

Expansion

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The interior design profession became more established after World War II. From the 1950s onwards, spending on the home increased. Interior design courses were established, requiring the publication of textbooks and reference sources. Historical accounts of interior designers and firms distinct from the decorative arts specialists were made available. Organisations to regulate education, qualifications, standards and practices, etc. were established for the profession.^[23]

Interior design was previously seen as playing a secondary role to architecture. It also has many connections to other design disciplines, involving the work of architects, industrial designers, engineers, builders, craftsmen, etc. For these reasons, the government of interior design standards and qualifications was often incorporated into other professional organisations that involved design.^[23] Organisations such as the Chartered Society of Designers, established in the UK in 1986, and the American Designers Institute, founded in 1938,^[26] governed various areas of design.

It was not until later that specific representation for the interior design profession was developed. The US National Society of Interior Designers was established in 1957, while in the UK the Interior Decorators and Designers Association was established in 1966. Across Europe, other organisations such as The Finnish Association of Interior Architects (1949) were being established and in 1994 the International Interior Design Association was founded.^[23]

Ellen Mazur Thomson, author of Origins of Graphic Design in America (1997), determined that professional status is achieved through education, self-imposed standards and professional gate-keeping organizations.^[23] Having achieved this, interior design became an accepted profession.

Interior decorators and interior designers

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Interior design is the art and science of understanding people's behavior to create functional spaces, that are aesthetically pleasing, within a building. Decoration is the furnishing or adorning of a space with decorative elements, sometimes complemented by advice and practical assistance. In short, interior designers may decorate, but decorators do not design.

Interior designer

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Interior designer implies that there is more of an emphasis on planning, functional design and the effective use of space, as compared to interior decorating. An interior designer in fine line design can undertake projects that include arranging the basic layout of spaces within a building as well as projects that require an understanding of technical issues such as window and door positioning, acoustics, and lighting.^[1] Although an interior designer may create the layout of a space, they may not alter load-bearing walls without having their designs stamped for approval by a structural engineer. Interior designers often work directly with architects, engineers and contractors.

Interior designers must be highly skilled in order to create interior environments that are functional, safe, and adhere to building codes, regulations and ADA requirements. They go beyond the selection of color palettes and furnishings and apply their knowledge to the development of construction documents, occupancy loads, healthcare regulations and sustainable design principles, as well as the management and coordination of professional services including mechanical, electrical, plumbing, and life safety—all to ensure that people can live, learn or work in an innocuous environment that is also aesthetically pleasing.

Someone may wish to specialize and develop technical knowledge specific to one area or type of interior design, such as residential design, commercial design, hospitality design, healthcare design, universal design, exhibition design, furniture design, and spatial branding. Interior design is a creative profession that is relatively new, constantly evolving, and often confusing to the public. It is not always an artistic pursuit and can rely on research from many fields to provide a well-trained understanding of how people are often influenced by their environments.

Color in interior design

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Color is a powerful design tool in decoration, as well as in interior design, which is the art of composing and coordinating colors together to create a stylish scheme on the interior architecture of the space.^[27][28]

It can be important to interior designers to acquire a deep experience with colors, understand their psychological effects, and understand the meaning of each color in different locations and situations in order to create suitable combinations for each place.^[29] Color is something that an interior design needs to understand. Color can affect the way that humans think, feel, or look at space. Color can have a major effect on human behavior through all ages. An interior designer must understand that different colors can easily overstimulate people depending on the environment. Color can also have effects on a room. For example, if someone is claustrophobic then painting a room in darker colors could make the room feel smaller therefore the person could feel trapped.

Combining colors together could result in creating a state of mind as seen by the observer, and could eventually result in positive or negative effects on them. Colors can make the room feel either more calm, cheerful, comfortable, stressful, or dramatic. Color combinations can make a tiny room seem larger or smaller.^[30] So it is for the Interior designer to choose appropriate colors for a place towards achieving how clients would want to look at, and feel in, that space.^[29]

In 2024, red-colored home accessories were popularized on social media and in several design magazines for claiming to enhance interior design. This was coined the Unexpected Red Theory.

Lighting

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Lighting is very important when designing a space. Lighting in a room can affect the way that a room is shown. By adding natural and artificial lighting a designer can enhance the features in space and make it more pleasing. When an interior designer places lighting in a home it is important to know what lighting to put where and how to use lighting to highlight important places in the room. Lighting can enhance the aesthetic appeal of a place, setting the mood for the room. For example, when putting lighting into an office you want tp make sure there is overhead lighting, task/ desk lighting and natural lighting. Making sure there is enough lighting in a workspace is important so the person using the place does not strain their eyesight.

Specialties

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Residential

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Residential design is the design of the interior of private residences. As this type of design is specific for individual situations, the needs and wants of the individual are paramount in this area of interior design. The interior designer may work on the project from the initial planning stage or may work on the remodeling of an existing structure. It is often a process that takes months to fine-tune and create a space with the vision of the client.^[31]

Commercial

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Commercial design encompasses a wide range of subspecialties.

• Retail: includes malls and shopping centers, department stores, specialty stores, visual merchandising, and showrooms.
• Visual and spatial branding: The use of space as a medium to express a corporate brand.
• Corporate: office design for any kind of business such as banks.
• Healthcare: the design of hospitals, assisted living facilities, medical offices, dentist offices, psychiatric facilities, laboratories, medical specialist facilities.
• Hospitality and recreation: includes hotels, motels, resorts, cruise ships, cafes, bars, casinos, nightclubs, theaters, music and concert halls, opera houses, sports venues, restaurants, gyms, health clubs and spas, etc.
• Institutional: government offices, financial institutions (banks and credit unions), schools and universities, religious facilities, etc.
• Industrial facilities: manufacturing and training facilities as well as import and export facilities.^[31]
• Exhibition: includes museums, gallery, exhibition hall, specially the design for showroom and exhibition gallery.
• Traffic building: includes bus station, subway station, airports, pier, etc.
• Sports: includes gyms, stadiums, swimming rooms, basketball halls, etc.
• Teaching in a private institute that offer classes of interior design.
• Self-employment.
• Employment in private sector firms.

Other

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Other areas of specialization include amusement and theme park design, museum and exhibition design, exhibit design, event design (including ceremonies, weddings, baby and bridal showers, parties, conventions, and concerts), interior and prop styling, craft styling, food styling, product styling, tablescape design, theatre and performance design, stage and set design, scenic design, and production design for film and television. Beyond those, interior designers, particularly those with graduate education, can specialize in healthcare design, gerontological design, educational facility design, and other areas that require specialized knowledge. Some university programs offer graduate studies in theses and other areas. For example, both Cornell University and the University of Florida offer interior design graduate programs in environment and behavior studies.

Profession

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Education

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There are various paths that one can take to become a professional interior designer. All of these paths involve some form of training. Working with a successful professional designer is an informal method of training and has previously been the most common method of education. In many states, however, this path alone cannot lead to licensing as a professional interior designer. Training through an institution such as a college, art or design school or university is a more formal route to professional practice.

In many countries, several university degree courses are now available, including those on interior architecture, taking three or four years to complete.

A formal education program, particularly one accredited by or developed with a professional organization of interior designers, can provide training that meets a minimum standard of excellence and therefore gives a student an education of a high standard. There are also university graduate and Ph.D. programs available for those seeking further training in a specific design specialization (i.e. gerontological or healthcare design) or those wishing to teach interior design at the university level.

There are a wide range of working conditions and employment opportunities within interior design. Large and tiny corporations often hire interior designers as employees on regular working hours. Designers for smaller firms and online renovation platforms usually work on a contract or per-job basis. Self-employed designers, who made up 32% of interior designers in 2020,^[32] usually work the most hours. Interior designers often work under stress to meet deadlines, stay on budget, and meet clients' needs and wishes.

In some cases, licensed professionals review the work and sign it before submitting the design for approval by clients or construction permitting. The need for licensed review and signature varies by locality, relevant legislation, and scope of work. Their work can involve significant travel to visit different locations. However, with technology development, the process of contacting clients and communicating design alternatives has become easier and requires less travel.^[33]

The Art Deco style began in Europe in the early years of the 20th century, with the waning of Art Nouveau. The term "Art Deco" was taken from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes, a world's fair held in Paris in 1925.^[34] Art Deco rejected many traditional classical influences in favour of more streamlined geometric forms and metallic color. The Art Deco style influenced all areas of design, especially interior design, because it was the first style of interior decoration to spotlight new technologies and materials.^[35]

Art Deco style is mainly based on geometric shapes, streamlining, and clean lines.^[36][37] The style offered a sharp, cool look of mechanized living utterly at odds with anything that came before.^[38]

Art Deco rejected traditional materials of decoration and interior design, opting instead to use more unusual materials such as chrome, glass, stainless steel, shiny fabrics, mirrors, aluminium, lacquer, inlaid wood, sharkskin, and zebra skin.^[35] The use of harder, metallic materials was chosen to celebrate the machine age. These materials reflected the dawning modern age that was ushered in after the end of the First World War. The innovative combinations of these materials created contrasts that were very popular at the time – for example the mixing together of highly polished wood and black lacquer with satin and furs.^[39] The barber shop in the Austin Reed store in London was designed by P. J. Westwood. It was soon regarded as the trendiest barber shop in Britain due to its use of metallic materials.^[38]

The color themes of Art Deco consisted of metallic color, neutral color, bright color, and black and white. In interior design, cool metallic colors including silver, gold, metallic blue, charcoal grey, and platinum tended to predominate.^[36][40] Serge Chermayeff, a Russian-born British designer made extensive use of cool metallic colors and luxurious surfaces in his room schemes. His 1930 showroom design for a British dressmaking firm had a silver-grey background and black mirrored-glass wall panels.^[38][41]

Black and white was also a very popular color scheme during the 1920s and 1930s. Black and white checkerboard tiles, floors and wallpapers were very trendy at the time.^[42] As the style developed, bright vibrant colors became popular as well.^[43]

Art Deco furnishings and lighting fixtures had a glossy, luxurious appearance with the use of inlaid wood and reflective finishes. The furniture pieces often had curved edges, geometric shapes, and clean lines.^[34][38] Art Deco lighting fixtures tended to make use of stacked geometric patterns.^[44]

Modern design grew out of the decorative arts, mostly from the Art Deco, in the early 20th century.^[45] One of the first to introduce this modernist style was Frank Lloyd Wright, who had not become hugely popularized until completing the house called Fallingwater in the 1930s. Modern art reached its peak during the 1950s and '60s, which is why designers and decorators today may refer to modern design as being "mid-century".^[45] Modern art does not refer to the era or age of design and is not the same as contemporary design, a term used by interior designers for a shifting group of recent styles and trends.^[45]

"Majlis painting", also called nagash painting, is the decoration of the majlis, or front parlor of traditional Arabic homes, in the Asir province of Saudi Arabia and adjoining parts of Yemen. These wall paintings, an arabesque form of mural or fresco, show various geometric designs in bright colors: "Called 'nagash' in Arabic, the wall paintings were a mark of pride for a woman in her house."^[46]

The geometric designs and heavy lines seem to be adapted from the area's textile and weaving patterns. "In contrast with the sobriety of architecture and decoration in the rest of Arabia, exuberant color and ornamentation characterize those of Asir. The painting extends into the house over the walls and doors, up the staircases, and onto the furniture itself. When a house is being painted, women from the community help each other finish the job. The building then displays their shared taste and knowledge. Mothers pass these on to their daughters. This artwork is based on a geometry of straight lines and suggests the patterns common to textile weaving, with solid bands of different colors. Certain motifs reappear, such as the triangular mihrab or 'niche' and the palmette. In the past, paint was produced from mineral and vegetable pigments. Cloves and alfalfa yielded green. Blue came from the indigo plant. Red came from pomegranates and a certain mud. Paintbrushes were created from the tough hair found in a goat's tail. Today, however, women use modern manufactured paint to create new looks, which have become an indicator of social and economic change."^[47]

Women in the Asir province often complete the decoration and painting of the house interior. "You could tell a family's wealth by the paintings," Um Abdullah says: "If they didn't have much money, the wife could only paint the motholath, the basic straight, simple lines, in patterns of three to six repetitions in red, green, yellow and brown." When women did not want to paint the walls themselves, they could barter with other women who would do the work. Several Saudi women have become famous as majlis painters, such as Fatima Abou Gahas.^[46]

The interior walls of the home are brightly painted by the women, who work in defined patterns with lines, triangles, squares, diagonals and tree-like patterns. "Some of the large triangles represent mountains. Zigzag lines stand for water and also for lightning. Small triangles, especially when the widest area is at the top, are found in pre-Islamic representations of female figures. That the small triangles found in the wall paintings in 'Asir are called banat may be a cultural remnant of a long-forgotten past."^[46]

"Courtyards and upper pillared porticoes are principal features of the best Nadjdi architecture, in addition to the fine incised plaster wood (jiss) and painted window shutters, which decorate the reception rooms. Good examples of plasterwork can often be seen in the gaping ruins of torn-down buildings- the effect is light, delicate and airy. It is usually around the majlis, around the coffee hearth and along the walls above where guests sat on rugs, against cushions. Doughty wondered if this "parquetting of jis", this "gypsum fretwork... all adorning and unenclosed" originated from India. However, the Najd fretwork seems very different from that seen in the Eastern Province and Oman, which are linked to Indian traditions, and rather resembles the motifs and patterns found in ancient Mesopotamia. The rosette, the star, the triangle and the stepped pinnacle pattern of dadoes are all ancient patterns, and can be found all over the Middle East of antiquity. Al-Qassim Province seems to be the home of this art, and there it is normally worked in hard white plaster (though what you see is usually begrimed by the smoke of the coffee hearth). In Riyadh, examples can be seen in unadorned clay.^[48]

Sustainable Design is becoming more important today. This type of style includes eco-friendly, energy efficient, and sustainable design while keeping the space functional. Modern design prioritizes energy efficient design styles and eco-friendly design styles.